The swadeshi movement and bengali theatre

24 Pages·1999·6.3 MB·English

by  Chatterjee, Minoti

The Swadeshi Movement and Bengali Theatre-
MINOT!CHAITERJEE
Any consideration of the history of 19th- and early-20th-cenluryBengalthesedays
almostinvariablytendstomakenationalismand/ormodernityitsnucleus.Theorists
quarrelamongthemselvesoverthedefinitionofthetwoconcepts,oftendismissingthemas
derivativediscoursesand trying to prove thattheyareactuallyrootedinthepre-colonial
past. Whatever may be the areas of difference,anti-British nationalismappears 10 bea
politicalandculturalprojectwhichwecannotignoreinframinganarrativeofpoliticalaction
andreactioninBengalinthelatterhalfofthe19thcentury,definedmoreclearlyinthefirst
fewdecadesofthe20thcentury,Aturningbacktothecolonialperiodisinsearchnotofa
comprehensiveor 'correct' understandingofthepastperse,butofthe19th-centuryagen
daswhichmaintainacontinuingholdoncontemporaryones.Thepast,then,notasaliving
traditiononemustreconnectwith,oracripplinginheritancetobelaidaside,orevenasa
definitestagetobetranscended, butasahiddenhistoryofstructuralanddiscursivedeter
minationswhichstealthilydeflect,reappropriate.andevencontrolcontemporaryinitiative.
Inthelasttwodecades, severalstudieshavepointedtodimensionsofnationalismhardly
touchedupon earlier. The nature of the nationalbourgeoisie. subalternmovements, the
recoveryof self, nationalisthistoriography, nationalistaesthetics,messianicmovements,
thewomanquestion, films. theatre, art andliteraryhistoryhaveallcomeinforscrutiny.
Subjectslikethesehavebeenexploredbecauseithasbeenincreasinglyfeltthatnationalism,
itsemergenceanddevelopment,itscontemporarypresence,isamorecomplex,contradic
tory.andshiftingphenomenonthanearlierthesessuggested.Dissatisfactionwithconcep
tualinheritances,liberal andMarxist,whichmakecleardistinctionsbetween'reactionary'
and'progressive'•andassignnationalism10oneortheothercategory,hasalsosuppliedthe
motivation for these researches. There has also been the convictionthatany study of
nationalismshould reckon with the decisiveandspecificlogicofthecolonialsilualion.
Thesestudiesmark themselves offfromearlieronesbecausetheyattempttotheorizeme
colonialcontextinwhichnationalismemerged,asmuchastheytheorizenationalismitself.
Thepresentstudyhasasimilargoal,andselectsforinvestigationtheSwadeshi~oHmenl
inBengal(whichopposedthepartitionoftheprovincein1905),andthe.interacnonofthe
movementwiththecontemporarytheatre.Thisinvolves,Inevitably,layingdowninsome
detailthepoliticalbackgroundofSwadeshi,togetherwithsomecommentsonthenatureof
theContemporarypolitics. .
~fthe th:e
ThecentralproblematicofcolonialisminIndiawastheresponse colonizedto
confro~tthe~r
dominantculturalcanon imposedbycolonialrule,forcingthecolonizedto
ownidentity, Bengali playsof theperiod playedanextremelyimportantroleon this
respect, evenastheyarticulatedanideologyofnationalliberation.TheBengalitheatregrew
• lb· . . . d tb UnivenityofDelhi.editedfor
ISISa chapter from the author's Ph.D.dissertallOnsubmlne to e
PUblicationinSangeet Natak.- Ed.
Stzng~~1Natd Nos. l33-134, 1999
34 MINOT! CHATIERJEE
withasenseof(oftenfalse)historicity,andwasusedpurposivelyasaplatfonnforSwadeshi.
Seriousattention washeregiventothenationas acultural project.As a matteroffact,
between 1905and 1912,nomediumofart inBengalfailed to express eitheranopenora
subterraneanfeelingofinjuredprideandanguishedprotest.Poetry,music,andtheatrewere
theearliest.andmostintenselyaffected.
•
DefendingthepartitionofBengalin1905,theViceroy,LordMinto,wrote toLordMorley
on5February 1906':
It is thegrowingpowerof apopulationwith greatintellectual gifts andatalentformaking
itself heard, apopulation which though is very far from representing the more manly
characteristicsofthemanyracesofIndia.is notunlikely toinfluence public opinion athome
most mischievously. Therefore from a political point of view alone. putting aside the
administrativedifficulties of theold province, Ibelieve partition to have been necessary.
Bengal wasalready movingtowards partition whenCurzon hadstarted hisso-called
streamlining.TherewasareductionofelectedelementsintheCalcuttaCorporation.anda
UniversitiesActwaspassedtoheightenbureaucraticcontrol.TheOfficialSecretsActwas
passed tocurb freedom of thepress. Therewasrampant racialdiscrimination. drain of
wealth,andrepeatedfaminesandepidemicswhichplaguedBengalthroughthe I890s.
Theideaofpartitionwastoyed withfrom 1903bySirAndrewFrazer,andfinallyanew
provinceofEasternBengalandAssamwascreatedcomprisingtheChittagong,Daccaand
Rajashahidivisions, HillTippera, MaIdaandAssam.TheformalproclamationscameonI
Septemberand 16October1905.Bengalwaspartitionedonthegroundsof"administrative
convenience":itwouldrelieveexcessiveburdenontheBengalgovernment,expansionof
Assamwouldgiveitsofficersawiderandmoreinterestingfieldtoworkin,andamaritime
outletwouldbeprovidedtodevelopitsindustriesintea,oilandcoal.Butevidentlythedeep
rooteddesignwasto'divideandrule'thepeopleofBengalandcurbtheemergingnational
movement. Apartfrom this,therewaswidespread anti-Bengali feeling inBritish official
circles. Indeed,AmalesTripathi says:"ThegenesisofthepartitionofBengalhadnothingto
dowithCurzon'sdeterminationtocrushaseditiousCongress.It haditsoriginsintheanti
Bengaliprejudiceamongthecivilians,growingtomonstrousproportionsinthelatterhalfof
the 19thcentury'",
~~~erates intheCongress consisted of sub-groups _ loyalist aristocrats, cautious
politicians ofIhe Mehta-Gokha!e group, and the Bengal group. Extremists in turn were
dividedamong themselves. While theTagoregroupadvocated self-helpandautonomous
developmentignoringBritishrule,othersfeltthatBritishrulewasincompatiblewithnational
progressandwantedtoprepareforitsoverthrow,forcingtheBritishtoleavethecountry.
The partitionofBengaltook theBengalmoderateswell beyond the limits ofold-sIyle
peuuoning.SurendranathBanerjeetouredthewhole ofthecountrymakingspeechesforthe
boycott ofManchestercloth and Liverpool salt. The moderates alsoparticipated, though
hesitatingly, in thenational educational movement. Men like Krishnakumar Mitra and
THESWADESHIMOVEMENTAND BE".GALITHEATRE J5
AmbikacharanMazumdarbecameverycloselyassociatedwiththemilitantvolunteerand
Samitimovements,andothermoderateleadersgavesupportandadvicetostrikingworkers
oftheEastIndianRailways.Storiesevencirculatedofsomeofthebiggestmoderateleaders
notbeingaversetosecretlygivingmonetaryaidtothefirstgroupsofyoungterrorists.The
history ofthe moderatesbetween 1905 and 1908reveals infactaratherdelicate balance
betweenthe hopestheyharboured and thefrustrationtheymetwith.
ExtremisminBengalwasaprotestagainsttheEnglish-educatedeliteleadership,andits
methodofprayerandpetition.Self-relianceandconstructivework werethenewslogans.
withnewSwadeshienterprisesandeducationasanintegralpartoftheagenda.Useofthe
vernacular.traditionalcustoms,andinstitutionslikethemetaorfairweretobeencouraged.
Meanwhile,TilakandLalaLajpatRaihadblazedanextremisttrailintrailinMaharashtraaod
Punjab,andthiscreated asensationinCalcuttaintheearlymonthsof1905.
Initially,theCongressavoidedtakingupthecauseofBengal.In1903,theMadrassession
oftheCongresspassedaresolutionwhichdenouncedtheproposedpartition,butonlyhalf
heartedly.Infact,themajorityofmembersontheSubjectsCommineeobjectedtotheresolu
tiononthegrounds that the proposed partitiondidnotconstitute an"All-India"problem.
TheywaivedtheirobjectiononlyonaccountofthepressureoftheBengalidelegates',Even
inthe1904Bombaysession.thedesiretodiscusstheresolutionwasminimal'.
About the power of the Bengali leadership within the Congress, and their persistent
oppositiontoanydivisionofBengal,LordCurzonhadearlierwrittentoJohnBrodrick:
Calcutta isthecentrefromwhichtheCongressparty ismanipulatedthroughoutthewholeof
BengalandindeedthewholeofIndia.Itsbestwirepullersanditsmost frothyoratorsallreside
there.They dominate public opinioninCaJcu1I3.theyaffect theHighCourt.they frighten
the local Government, andthey aresometimes not withoutserious influence upon(be
Government ofIndia.The wholeoftheiractivity isdirectedtocreateanagencysopowerfUl.
thatthey may onedaybeable10forceaweakgovernment togive themwhat theydesire.
Anymeasureinconsequence that woulddividetheBengalispeakingpopulation.that would
permit independent centres of activity andinfluence to grow up. that....ould~ethrone
CalcuttafromitsplaceasthecentreofsuccessfulintrigueorthatwouldweakentheInfluence
of thelawyerclass who havetheentireorganisationintheirhandsis intenselyandbody
resentedbythem,'
Theanti-panitionmovementtooksometimetogathermomentum.ABengalinews~per.
Sanjibani,gavethefirstcallto"Boycott"on22June1905,andTheBengaleeacceptedIton
12Angust1905.AlukewarmresolutionwasmovedatthehistoricTownHallmeetingof7
August1905:themnderatemottostillseemeddefence,notdefiance.SurendranathBanerjee,
theMaharajaofKasimBazar ManindraChandraNandi, MaulaviHasibuddinAhmed:all
, d ~
tookavowtotakeupSwadeshiandBoycott,andforcedtheCongresstoa nptanappropna
Rabm~ath
resolutioninitsCalcuttasessionin1906.Thesloganof'BandeMatararn,'and
I ba h·'('M oldenBengal Iloveyou)rent
Tragore"sAmarsonarBangia.ami•tomaybha0 S lYg .
~ai~ .
. edfromthemovement TheIdeawas
Aclear-cut(iferroneous)theoryofeconomicsemerg '- ·al
thatI·fafilh·pwastobegi.ventom. dl.genous.industry,thenpractisingSwadeshi.wases.senll d,
. . !hi all h ppen PerformmgartIstsan
andonlyifforeigngoodswereboycottedcould sacto Y a .
36 MINOT! CHATTERJEE
paintersenteredthepoliticalarenain1905,andthecall forself-reliancespilledoverintothe
domainofan.encouragingartiststouseitasapoliticalweapon.Culturalautonomywas1\)
complementeconomic self-sufficiency.Abanindranath Tagore's 'Bharat Mala', hisonly
paintingwithanovertpoliticalmessage,wasproducedduringtheSwadeshiunrest.Inthe
economicsphere,thefaminesof 1897and 1899had emphasizedthepovertyoftheIndian
masses.DadabhaiNaoroji'sPovertyandUn-BritishRuleinJndia(1901),WilliamDigby's
ProsperousBritish Jndia (1901), and R.C. Dun's The EconomicHistory of BritishJndia
(1901)allprotestedagainstthedrainoflndia'swealthtoEngland,andtheimpoverishmentof
lndia'speasants.
Withtherise of the professional middle class in Bengal, aided by the educationaland
economicpoliciesoftheBrilish.thepa/lisamaj(villagesociety)had virtuallybrokenup.A
sectionoftheyouthhadleftthe villagesandcomeawayto urban areasinsearchofnew
employments. BurduringtheSwadeshi movementitwasthe model of the villageasan
economicunitthatguidedtheleadersinthemetropolistodeterminethefuturelineofaction.
ThequestionaroseastowhetherSwadeshiwasamatterofsociety,andBoycottarnatterof
politics.Thereweredifferencesofopinionamongboththemoderatesandextremists,aswell
asamongintellectuals.RabindranathTagore, forexample. thoughtthatitwasunfairto
impose Boycott on the poorestof the poor, who would not be able to affondindigenous
substitutes.Therewasagreatdealofactivityinthefieldofindigenous'national'education.
whichpre-dalesthecalltoSwadeshibyseveralyears.Vivekananda,whohadpassedaway
in1902.wasoneofitsardentadvocates:'Theidealthereforeisthatwemusthavethewhole
educationofourcountry,spiritualandsecular,inourhands.anditmustbeonnationallines.
through national methods as far as practical..•.Vivekananda's follower Sister Nivedita,
Rabindranath Tagore,Satishchandra Mukhopadhyay,AcharyaPrafulla ChandraRay,and
RamendrasundarTrivediwereamongotherprominentworkersinthisfield.Rabindranath
had already founded the Brahma Vidyalaya and Santiniketan in 190I. Satishchandra
MUkhopadhyay didpioneering work with the Dawn Society through its chronicleDawn.
Meanwhile,theCarlyleCircularwasissuedon22October1905tocurbstudentprotest;soon
after,itwasdecidedtoboycottalluniversityeducation.ABengal NationalCollege(wbich
became the nucleusof thefutureJadavpur University) and school were setupin 1906to
provideeducationinscienceandtechnology.Technicalinstitutes were setupto provide
vocationaltrainingforemployment.Mills,banks,andhandicraftboards werefonned".Pref
erencewasshownforhandloom,andthechorkhawasbothpracticallyused and symboli
callypromoted.ThiswasindeedthefirstseriousattemptbyIndianstotaketheireconorrnc
destinyintheirownhands.
TheSwadeshiideawastoraisethepoliticalconsciousnessofthe pallisandinspirethe
rural folktowork fordevelopment.The propagationwasthroughlecturesaswellaslarras
andsongs,whIchweremoreeffectivewiththemasses. Ashwini KumarDuttandCharan
Kabi Mukundadas were two well-known personalities'involved in this programme.The
former"TOtetozamindarstostopthesaleofforeigngoodsintheirbazars(thoughnotman.y
responses were forthcoming). However,although Swadeshi had a specifically econornts
~spect.ItalsocontainedasentimentassociatedwithmanyotherphasesofIndiannational·
ISmasobservedbyhistorianSumitSarkar.Indigenousgoods wereto bepreferredbycon-
THE SWADESHI MOVEMENT AND BENGALITHEATRE 37
sumerseveniftheyweremoreexpensivethan- andinferiorto- theirimportedsubsti
tutes.anditwasthe patriotic duty of menwithcapital10 pioneersuchindustries, even
thoughprofitsmightinitiallybeminimalornon-existent.Swadeshi,thus.isatermofnar
rowerscope than indigenousenterprise,"muchofwhichcould,andoftendid,followthe
moreprofitablefranklycompradorlines"!",ItalsoseemsthaISwadeshiandBoycottmeant
variousthingstovariouspeopleinthenationalistleadership.ToSurendranathBanerjeethe
onlyaimofBoycottwastocalltheattentionoftheBritishpublictoBengal'sgrievanceabout
the partition;when the decision was reversed, the Boycott was to cease. ForGokhale.
Boycottwasapoliticalweapon,tobeusedwiththedefinitepurposeofindustrialregenera
tion.ForLal,Bal.Pal- themilitanttrio- Boycotthaddoubleimplications:Materially.itwas
toputeconomicpressure onManchester, whichwouldproduceachain reactiononthe
Indiangovernment;fromaspiritualpointofview,itmeant thedispellingofthemayaof
Britishpower,andanecessarysacrificeforSwaraj.Tilakcalledit."theYogaofBahishkar",a
ritualofrejection;itwasalsoatraininginself-help,determinationandsacrifice.ToAurobindo.
itwasnotmerelyamovementforautonomyandwealth,butareturntofaithinIndia'sroleas
worldsaviour.Thedayofpartition,16October1905,wasobservedasRakhiBandbandayat
thesuggestionofRabindranathTagore.ThousandsofpeoplewalkedbarefoottotheGanga
andtookadip.Therewasevenanappeal forarandhanrnocooking'inhouseholds)asa
signofmourning.
PerhapsnoaspectofnationalisminBengalintheearly1900shasreceivedmoreattention
than therevoJutionaryterrorismgeneratedbyit!'. Thoughunsurpassableinitsromantic
appeal.itis adifficultperiodtoreconstructintheabsenceoffirst-handsources.Private
papershavelargelynotsurvived,andrecords- thelittlethatareavailable- aredistorted.
ItwouldseemthatBengalwastiredoftheCongress'smendicantwaysandsoughtrevolu
tionaryterrorism asapanacea.Terroristactivitieswereprimarilyledbytwogroups,the
AnushilanSamiti (founded in 1902)andYugantar(1906).Thefirstpolitical murderwas
plannedbyKhudiramBoseandPrafuUaChakiin1902- anattemptonthelifeofanEnglish
DistrictMagistrate,Kingsford.(ThebombactuallykilledtwoEnglishwomen.andnotthe
magistrate.)Manyyoungsterswhowereimpatienttooktoterroristmethodssubsequently.
ExtremisminIndianpoliticsmanifestedamarkedresemblancetowhatToynheewouldcall
"archaism".Itwasaresponsetothechallengeofahaphazardandsuperficialv.'eslemizati?"
ofIndianlife,thoughtandpolitics.AccordingtoAmalesTripalhi,themovementofrests
lancecouldbediscussedonthreeplanes.Spiritually,itcounteredathreattothetraditional
Hindureligion,ethics,andsocialvaluesposedbyChristianilyandUlilitariani,m,a,wellas
Brahmoism which was stronglyinfluenced byboth.Culturally,itresistedamechanistic,
materialistic andindividualisticcivilizationwhichseemedtobedestroyingordlstortmgthe
me~er ~
indigenoustissuesofsocialgrowth.Politically,itwuhstoodaslow of'Indian iden
tityiothevastBritishempire.AreboundfromtherrJmesisoftheWest.Ithowe,:eroscillated
10anotherextreme:mimesisofancientIndia",Bornofapsychologyoffear.II inculcated
aggressiveness in tone and temper.It bred an equally unhealthyorthodoxy amongthe
largelyHindumiddleclassesofBengal. .
cl~arly
Bengaliplaysduringthisperiodhadaspiritofromanticismandadventure influ
encedby revolutionary terrorism. Much ofthe literatureofthetimewasinspiredbythe
38 MtSOTtCHATTERJEE
writingsofBankimChandraChattopadhyaya,particularlyhis novelXnandamatnwithits
sloganof 'BandeMataram' fortheSantan Sampradaya.Thisnovel was takenupbythe
youngrevolutionarytheoristAurobindoGhoshandtreatedasapoliticaltract,withBankim
himselfbeinghailedastheseerofthenationalistmovement. In aseriesofelevenarticles
titled'NewLampsforOld',AurobindostronglycriticizedthemendicancyoftheCongress.
TogetherwithotherleaderslikeAshwiniKumar Duttand Barin Ghosh,hewasseriously
thinkingintermsofanarmeduprising.Aurobindo'sBhawaniMandir,apamphletpublished
in1905,wasaboutShaktiasacultforrevolutionaryterrorism,ForAurobindo,themeansto
theendofpoliticalemancipationwasturningitintoanendinitself".
Extremist leaders(allupper-caste Hindus) used religion to mobilize supportfortheir
cause,andthuspatriotismlookonthecolourofHindu revivalism, Theidentificationof
patriotismwithreligionfoundexpressioninthepujaofDurga or Kali asMotherland-a
symbolismgoingbacktoBankimChandra.Tilak'svisittoBengalinJune 1906tocelebrate
theShivajifestival,onwhichoccasionhecompared'BandeMataram'toShivaji'sworshipo!
thegoddessBhawani(KaliinBengal),wasfurtherencouragementtotherevolutionaries.In
fact,bythistime, Shivajihad become established as an icon of Indian resistanceinthe
BengaliHindu mind.Theprocess had begun with Rameshchandra Dutt's Maharasntra
Jib.n Prabha/(1878),andcontinued withTilak's Shivaji festivals (inMaharasbtra),tobe
emulatedbyTagore'sShivajiUtsav(1904).Notsurprisingly,Shivajiwasaveneratedfigure
inmanyplaysofthetime.
VowsontheGilaweretakenoninitiationintorevolutionarypolitics,tantricvowswere
alsonotunknownamongthemilitants.SisterNiveditagaveastartlingreinterpretationofthe
Goddessasincarnatedinthesword.BankimChandra,inKrishnaCharitra, presentedKrishna
asaherowhowouldredeemtheworld.TilakwroteacommentaryontheGila,andAurobindo
contributedtheintroductorychaptertoit.LajpatRajcompiledanUrdu 'biography'ofKrishna,
andAshwiniKumarDUllexpatiatedonbhaktiyoga.EvenBrahmabandhahDpadhyaya.who
wasaRomanCatholicforabriefperiodinhislife,wroteSrikrishnatattva;andBipinChandra
Pal,arationalistBrahmo,fellundertheneo-VaishnavitespellofBijoyKrishnaGoswamito
proclaimSriKrishnatobe"thesoulofIndia".Dharmarajyawasequatedwithswarajya,and
terrorism wasunderstoodasdharmayuddha.Butwhileextremism waspartlyindebted10
Bankim,VivekanandaandDayanandforitsideology,itwasnotforitspoliticalraisondtue
TheextremistpurposewasprimarilytoopposethemoderateswhohadacceptedtheBritisb
'mission'.inIndiaatitsfacevalueandhadbecomecomplacentandtrusting, .
:erronsm,however,peteredoutduetolackofpopularsupport,andinternaldifferencesm
tactics.Thegovernmentresortedtosevererepression.Itbannedpublicmeetings.censored
thepress,and engaged insavagepersecutions. Themorecoverttherevolutionariesbe
carne,theharderthegovernmentcarnedownonthem.Theterroristsdidnotwintheirbowe,
buttheydidposeachallengetotheircolonialrulers.Thereforeitneeds tohestatedthatlhe
commonbeliefthatIndia'sfreedommovementwasnon-violentisill-founded.
. TheearlyphaseofSwadeshihadthesupportofmostMuslims,SomeMuslinncommuni,
lies hope~forgainsfr?mSwadeshipolicies,forexampletheweaverswhostood10benefit
fromarejectionofBritishcloth;indeed,thesingersofBakarganjhadcomposedsongson
thissubject.JUSIbeforethepartition,inSeptember 1905,lenthousandHindusandMusliJllS
THESWADESHI MOVEMENT ANDBENGALITHEATRE 39
demonstratedtheir unity at Rajabazar. In thatcongregation, AbdulRasool.aSwadeshi
enthusiast,declaredthattherewasonlyonemotherland- Bangladesh".MohammadYusuf,
ChairmanoftheSwadeshiSabha,proposedaMilanMandirforHindusandMuslimsonthe
dayofthepartition.ButtheBritishhadalsobeenable10enticesomeMuslimleaderswiththe
spoilsofadivide.In 1905, theNawabofDaccatogetherwithsomeotherMuslimleaders
activelysupportedthepartition.TheAghaKhansenlaproposaltoLordMintoforseparate
electoratesforMuslims.whichwasaccepted.TheDaccaMuslimleaguewasformedinthe
sameyear(1905).ItwasalsotheyearoftheestablishmentoftheHinduMahasabha.which
remainedactiveup101908.
Thecorrespondence between class and religious affiliationinBengal laybehindthe
emergenceofcommunalpoliticsinthisera- anditssuccess.Bengalhad3predominantly
Hindulandowningclassand a predominantlyMuslimtenantry.Inevitably,thedominant
upper-casteHindubhadralok.politicallyorganizedundertheCongress,soughttopreserve
theprivilegesofthezamindariandtheintermediaterentierinterests,whiletheMuslimlead
ersofEastBengal,relyingonthesupportoftheMuslimpraja,soughttoupholdtherights
ofraiyatsandfoundthemselvesinoppositiontotheCongress.Therewasalsotheattrac
tionofaseparateconstituencyandalargershareofpower.ThenewMuslimleadershipof
EaSIBengalwasthusconvincedofitsneedforanindependentpoliticalorganization,which
inevitablytookananti-Hindustance.
ThiscouldhappenonlybecausetheSwadeshimovementwasessentiallyanupper-caste
Hindu bhadralok affair, which by its ideology and practices had alienated both the
Muslimmassesandthegentry.Revivalismservedasastimulusforradicalismanddeepened
Muslimalienation.InallspheresoftheSwadeshienterprise.religionwac;usedasamotivar
ing factor. This could only bring about a breach in Hindu-Muslim relations.
Theriots in 1906 _ 7proved that the callto SwadeshiandBoycottcouldnotovercome
thisdeepening divide.
•
Thepolitical and social concernsofthe Swadeshimovementwereaptlyre/Jectedinthe
theatreoftheperiod.Indeed,thetheatrewasharnessedforpoliticalendsduringthisera.The
plays had no apparently subversive ideology_ thecensorshiplawssaw10.that - bUI
le~ders
nationalismandpatriotismwerepropagatedinthegarbofotherthemes..Ther,oilucal
chanelled the issues of the day intodramaticliterature.Theplaywrights.gavepolitical
interpretationstohistoryandmyth.TheswadeshiJatrabecameagreatforceInruralBenga.l,
motivating peopleto adoptthewayofSwadeshi.NalionalistconsciousnessinfusedthiS
traditionalform,makingitavehicleofpoliticalpropaganda. .
TheatresinCalcuttabecamevenuesofpublicmeetingsforpoliticalpurposes.Atasenes
ofmeetingsintheStarTheatreon3August,attheAlbertHallon5Augus/,andattheGrand
gov~mme~t
Theatreon 15August 1905,B.C.PalurgedtheextensionofBoycotttotitles,
~o
servicesandfunctions.TwohundredstudentsintheStarTheatreresponded Palscall 0
(The passive resistance
• ,16
SIgn a pledge not to lake employment under the govemme." . . ., ' i-
programmeformulatedbyB.C.PalandAurobindoGhoshanllclpated.rnfact,Gandhispoill.
. ) Thi 'asallenuncIatedinpublic
calprogrammeexcept forthedogmaofnon~\'JOlence . JSW
40 MINOTt CHAITERJEE
theatres:thestagewasnowapoliticalspace.
Devastation,economicdrain.Swadeshi,Boycott,wereheardanddiscussedeverywhere
_ notonlyinformal treatisesand newspaperarticlesbutalso in songs, playsandJanas.
Muchwaswritteninfavourofthecharkha,whichwould(supposedly)provideemployment
toruralwomen,andwouldalsoendtheembarrassmentofSwadeshihandloomsdepending
onLancashireimportsforyamoffinercounts.Acontemporaryplay,AmritalalBasu'sShabash
Bangali(1905),endswithvillagewomengoingbacktothecharkha.
In 1905the StarTheatreproduced D.L,Roy's Rana Pratap.On the day oftheactual
partition.thetheatreobservedmourning.AnadvertisementinAmritaBazarPatrikasaid:
'MourningatStar!IPartitionofBengalINoAmusementattheStarTheatreIOnWednesday
6SeptemberI Amritalal BoseI Manager", A seriesofhistorical playsfollowed thean
nouncement.Thiswasaperiodofvigorouspatrioticpoetryandsong.andinspiredsomeof
thewell-knownsongsofRabindranathTagore,D.L.Roy,andMukundadas".Theimageof
1905whichhassurvivedinthecollectivememoryofBengalisinfactinextricablyboundup
withSwadeshisongs",
Alargenumberofpatrioticplayshadalreadybeenwrittenduringthe 1860sand 1870"
andweretheimmediatecauseforthepassageofLytton's DramaticPerfonnancesActin
1876.Then,forabout twentyyears, thepoliticalinterestwas swampedalmostentirelyby
religiousandotherthemes.Animportantdramatistofthetime,GirishChandraGhosh(1877·
1912),forexample,concentratedonPuraniethemesorsentimentaldomesticdrama. (Itmay
beunfairtocharacterizeGirish'splays assuch,becauseGirishhas alsobeen interpretedas
anintelligentuserofallegory.)TheSwadeshimovementbroughtaboutasuddenswingi~
fashionbacktohistoricalplaysofpatriotic content.InJanuary 1906,nolessthatfivesuch
playswerestagedattheStarandMinerva.thetwoleadingtheatresofCalcutta:Kshirodeprasad
Vidyavinode'sPadmini,D.L.Roy's Pratapsingha,AmritalalBasu'sShabashBangali.Girish
Ghosh'sSiroj-ud-doula,and HaranathBose'sJagaran.
InIhefirstphaseofhiscareer,GirishGhoshwroteplaysbasedon mythicordevotional
lore,likeRabanaBadh(1881)andChaitanyaLee/a(1884).Hewaslateranardentfollowerof
Sri Ramakrishna and Vivekananda.None couldsurpasshimin readingthe directionsthaI
popularsentimentwould take.Thuswhen the Swadeshi upsurgehit thestage,hechoseto
write playsonsome oftheheroesof the land.Judgingfrom these,his ideal nationwould
seem tobeaunitedHindurashlra,asindeeddeclaredintheplayChhatropatiShivaji.The
AmrilaBazarPatrikaon 18March 1908reportedthatChhatrapatiShivajibyGirishGhoSh
was staged at the Kohinoor Theatre on 15 March, "in the company ofSreejukta Bepin
Chandra Palwhohadkindlyacceptedtheinvitationtogracetheoccasion".Thiswastheaue's
wayofstrikinganalliancewiththepoliticalleadersofthetime.
. UtpalDutt,notedplaywrightandactor,howeverstronglyfeltthatGirishemployedreli
giousandotherthemes tocritiquemiddle-classmorality>,InSiraj-ud-doula,Girishi~
catchesIndiansocietyatthecrossroads,witharuthlessamoralcliqueofmerchantswrcsung
pow:erfromafe.udalchiefthroughtreacheryanddeceit,whilehissubjectswatchhelplessly.
KanmCh~chaIIISiraj-ud-doutaisthevoiceofthesetwosystemsinconflict_ aparallel
figuretoS""J.andalmosthisalterego.
THE SWADESHI MOVEMENTAND BENGALITHEATRE 41
D.L. Roy'splays,on theotherhand.displayed awillbothtopreserveandreconstruct
tradition.Histhemeswere historical.RanaPratapsingha(I905),forexample,demonstrates
how,inordertoregenerateitself.religionwouldhavetodropitsritualismandnarrowout
look.TheStarTheatrebeganshowingtheplayon22July 1905.Thesensationwassogreat
that on the first night four hundred people returned disappointed for want of tickets"
Mewar Patan also reinforces this ideology, but perhaps pushes the agenda too far for
generalacceptance,InthisplayaMuslimcharacter,MobabatKhan,makesananalysisofthe
'truenature'ofthe Hindus,whenhesays:"Somuchhatred!Nowonderthisracehasalways
beensubjectedtoIslam.ThisistheirsupposedlyliheralSanatanDharma?Muslimsatleast
canboastofacceptingallnon-Muslims[intotheirfold].ButHinduism?Anon-Hinducan
neverbecomeaHinduevenafternever-endingpenance...Hindudharma. Father! Such
hatred,suchself-pride,suchangertowardsMuslims...Youtalkofrepentance,Father.Yes,
Iwilldopenance.but notfor becomingaMuslim - because onedayIwasaHinduand
that'swbatI'repent.'?'.
Mewar Patan tells ofthe downfall notonly of Mewar butof Hindus, and of loss of
'national'character.InDurgadas(1905),themightoftheMarathasandtheirhorsemanship
ispraised.andthe hopeisexpressedthattheywouldjointheRajputsagainsttheMughals;
ifunited,theywouldbeaformidableforcetoreckonwith.Shahjahan(1909)shedslighton
theinabilityofthe RajputprincestouniteagainsttheMughals;eveniftheyweresuccessful,
theplay suggests, there wouldhe a struggle for supremacyamong theRajput chieftains
themselves. D.L. Roy'scharacterswere taken fromepicloreaswell,likeRamaintheplay
Seeta(1902)or AhalyainPashani(1900);buteventhesebecamerealpeople,with human
facesandcontemporaryproblems.
Padmini(1903),Nandakunwr(\9<»),PalashirPrayashchilla(1901),Bang"Prasapaditya
(1906) andA/amgir(l92I).allwrittenbyKshirodeprasadVidyavinode,relatedreligionto
nationalisminonewayorother.Interestingly,hewroteplaysontwoofGirishGhosh'searlier
subjects_ Siraj-ud-doulaandMirKasim_ characterswhohadgainedmythicalpropor
tionsinpopularconsciousness.
Someoftheseplaysafforddualinterpretations.Playsglorifyinga'Hindu' pastcanalso
be read asdocuments onpatriotismofa secular kind.with Hindu-Muslimunity at the
forefront.Indeedthe partitionofBengalsawdichotomousstreamsofthinking.Ontheone
hand,themilitancywasstridentlyHinduincharacter;ontheother,Muslimswerealargepart
ofthepopulation. andassimilatingthemintothemainstreamwasacompulSion.Inthe
politicalarena.thetwocommunitieswereoftenopenlyantagonistic.Yetsecularlanguage
wasusedwhenGirishGhoshhadSirajdeclare:
motherl~
ShouldtherebeablesseddaywhenHindusandMuslimsunitefOTmecauseofthe
iredman' and feeltheir
giveuptheirselfishinterestsand shoulderthecommonesploi manscause,
.Insullasthei.r persona.lhum_ih.ati.on,only .t.n.e_ncan.U..K_' r".."..-.I·b.......-.rsbetamed' OJelseunfortu-
nateM~r Bengalis bound10beinchains!).
~ntiments:~
Similarly, while the play ChhaJrapatiShivajiclearly expressed Hindu
dlle~a
promoted the cultofthe MotherGoddess,therewasevidentlya 10 dealing .
Muslimcharacters.Inanalmostforcedbidforcommunalharmony,ShivajitellstheMuslims
41 MINOTt CHAITERJEE
thattheyarefreeinanindependentMaharashtra:"Hewholovesfreedomdoesnotdiscrimi
natebetweenaHinduandaMuslim.Thediscriminationisintheheartsofcowards.Itisthey
whoperpetuateit."24HetellsMuslimswhowanttojoinhisarmy:
. .. youtooareentitledtofreedom. You willtakeupanTIS forfreedom,thereis nodoubt
aboutit.andbrightenthefareofthemotherland.Therewillbenodiscriminationagainstyou
onthebasis ofrace orreligion",
Oneshouldbewaryofreadingtheseplaysashistorical plays,becausetheconcernofthe
playwrightswasnothistoricity;rather.itwasusinghistorytopromotenationalism.Inthis
elTort GirishGhosh. withhis fairly goodsense ofhistory,was very successful inhislater
phase.Hemouldedthe Bengalistageonnationalist linesand indeed tried totumitintoan
institutionfor nation-building.When ChhatrapatiShivajiwas stagedon9June 1905,The
Bengaleeannouncedon behalfofMinervaTheatre:
Webegtodraw theattentionofthe readerto theannouncementmadeelsewherethatMessrs
TilakandKhaparde willattend theperformanceatthe MinervaTheatrethis evening. .. In
honourof the venerable Mobarashtra Patrons Srijut BalagangadharTilak of Poona, Sri
KrishanKhapardeofAmraoti,[and]Dr.MunjeofNagpore...otherdistinguishedguestsand
renownedvisitorshavekindlyconsentedtograceourpavillion with theirpresence.
During theperformanceofShivajithe'BandeMataram'sloganwas raised;GirishGhosh
playingaroleintheplaykneltdowninrespectfulacknowledgement,whilethewholehouse
stoodupinsilence.Tilaksatthroughtheentireplayandcongratulatedthedramatistandlbe
theatreforputtingupsuch apatrioticplay."
D.L. Roy's plays Rana Pratapsingha, Durgadas, Noorjehan,and Shahjahan alldeal
withHindu-Muslimunity. InRonaPratapasingha,MehmnissaasksherfatherAkbarifGod
isone;andifthatisso,whyissomuchbloodspilledinHisname.SheandIra.Pratapsinghas
daughter.are bosomfriends,though their fathers are enemies. In Durgadas, themi~tar)'
commanderofAurangzeb'sforce.DilerKhan,trieshisutmosttoforgecommunalharmony.
Hesays:
\\llycan'tithappen...both have livedunderthesameskyandbreathed thesameair.Are
~cir souls not one even nowj Letthem(oronce forgettheirreligious differences.raci.a.l
differences,and withfoldedhandsbowto thegreenandprosperouslandthatis India.27
~ Noorjehan,a visibly worried Shahjahan asks Karnasingha ofMewar whether h~s
preciousTajMahalwouldbepreservedafterhisdeath.Karnasinghavaliantlyreplies:"!llS
truethatHindushavefallen,butnotsolow,0 Emperor.Aslongasthereissomeonetolight
aI~~.inthe Mewardynasty,therewill be nodearthofoiltolightalampin theMasjid':'
well...D.L.Roymade asenousefforttobringawarenesstothepeople.to overcomereli
giousdifferences,andunitethemforaCommoncause.Healsotriedtobringoutthehuman
ismofreligion,and madedeftuseofhislorytodrivehispointshome.Chandragupta(1911)
reflected D.L. Roy's pride in being an Indian. When the Indian king Porus is asked by
Alexanderhowhewouldliketobetreated,hereplieswithgreataplomb:"Asonekingtreats