The Sun And Photovoltaic Technologies

419 Pages·2020·31.003 MB·English

by  Tomislav Pavlovic

Green Energy and Technology
Tomislav Pavlovic Editor
The Sun and
Photovoltaic
Technologies
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Tomislav Pavlovic
Editor
The Sun and Photovoltaic
Technologies
With contributions by Tomislav Pavlovic,
ć
Aris Tsangrassoulis, Nikola Dj. Ceki , Plamen Ts. Tsankov,
ć ć ć
Dragoljub Lj. Mirjani , Ivana S. Radonji Miti
123
Editor
Tomislav Pavlovic
Department ofPhysics
University of Niš
Niš, Serbia
ISSN 1865-3529 ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic)
Green Energy andTechnology
ISBN978-3-030-22402-8 ISBN978-3-030-22403-5 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22403-5
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Contents
Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Tomislav Pavlovic
Photovoltaic Solar Energy Conversion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Tomislav Pavlovic, Plamen Ts. Tsankov, Nikola Dj. Cekić
and Ivana S. Radonjić Mitić
Solar Lighting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Aris Tsangrassoulis
Lighting Technologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Plamen Ts. Tsankov
Solar Energy and Lighting in Serbia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Tomislav Pavlovic and Nikola Dj. Cekić
Solar Energy and Lighting in Bulgaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Plamen Ts. Tsankov
Solar Energy and Lighting in the Republic of Srpska . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
Tomislav Pavlovic and Dragoljub Lj. Mirjanić
Index .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... .... .... .... .... ..... .... 413
v
Solar Energy
TomislavPavlovic
Abstract Inthischapter information about interiorof theSun, atmosphere ofthe
Sun,originof thesolarenergy, extraterrestrialandterrestrialsolarradiation,mea-
surementsofsunshineduration,directsolarradiationintensityandintensityofglobal
anddiffusesolarradiation,solarradiationonaninclinedsurface,propagationofsolar
radiationthroughatmosphereandtheEarthrevolutionaregiven.
1 Sun
Inourgalaxy,knownastheMilkyWaythereareabout400billionstarswhichinclude
theSunaswell.
AgeoftheSunisestimatedataboutfivebillionyears.TheSunishalfwaythrough
itslifecycle,whichmeansthatinthecurrentwayitwillshineforanotherfivebillion
years.
Since the Earth rotates around the Sun in an elliptical orbit, its distance
from the Sun is changing. Average distance of the Earth from the Sun is R =
(149,597,870.5±1.6)km(Fig.1).
TheSunisplasmaglaringballdiameterof2R =1.319×106 km.Thesurface
S
temperatureoftheSunist =5500–6000°C,meandensityisρ =1409kg/m3and
s s
thetotalmassisM =2×1030kg.OnthesurfaceoftheSunagravitationalfieldis
s
27.9timesstrongerthanthegravitationalfieldonthesurfaceoftheEarth.Thetotal
amountofenergy(luminosity)whichtheSunradiatesintothesurroundingareaina
unitoftimeamountstoL =3.83×1026 J/s.
s
TheSunrotatesonitsaxisasanon-homogeneoussphere.PartsoftheSuncloser
totheEquatorrotateathigherangularvelocityrelativetopartsoftheSun,whichare
closertothepolarregions.
Chemical composition of the Sun is analysed by its spectral lines. Chemical
compositionoftheSunisshowninTable1.
B
T.Pavlovic( )
FacultyofSciencesandMathematics,UniversityofNiš,Niš,Serbia
e-mail:[email protected]
©SpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2020 1
T.Pavlovic(ed.),TheSunandPhotovoltaicTechnologies,
GreenEnergyandTechnology,https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-22403-5_1
2 T.Pavlovic
Fig.1 StructureoftheSun
[1]
Table1 Chemical
Element Percentageoftotal Percentageoftotal
compositionoftheSun[2]
atoms massoftheSun
Hydrogen 92 73.4
Helium 25.0
Carbon 0.03 0.3
Nitrogen 0.008 0.1
Oxygen 0.06 0.8
Neon 0.008 0.1
Magnesium 0.002 0.05
Silicon 0.003 0.07
Sulfur 0.002 0.04
Iron 0.004 0.2
TheSunhasitsownmagneticfieldwhoseintensityandpolarityvariesdepending
on time and location on its surface. Magnetic field polarity is changing in cycles
whichonaveragelast22yearsasaconsequenceoftheionizedSunfluidmovement.
InacalmperiodoftheSun’sactivity,magneticfieldinductionoftheSunisoccurring
morerarely10−4 T.
SolarEnergy 3
1.1 InterioroftheSun
The Sun is composed of the interior and atmosphere. The interior of the Sun is
composedofthecore,radiativeandconvectionzones(Fig.2).
Duetothegravityandisotropyofthepropagationofenergyfromthecenterofthe
Suntowardsthesurface,itsfeaturesaredependentonthedistancefromthecenter.
Distributionoftemperature,density,massandluminosityoftheSun,dependingon
thedistancefromitscenteraregiveninTable2.
Fig.2 StructureoftheSun:
(1)core,(2)radiativezone,
(3)convectionzone,(4)
photosphere,(5)
chromosphere,(6)corona
Table2 Distributionoftemperature,density,massandluminosityoftheSun,dependingonr/Rs
[2]
r/Rs t(r)(106oC) P(r)(kg/m3) M(r)/Ms L(r)/Ls
1.0 0.006 0.0001 1.000 1.00
0.9 0.50 9 0.999 1.00
0.8 1.27 35 0.996 1.00
0.7 1.80 120 0.990 1.00
0.6 2.42 400 0.970 1.00
0.5 3.42 1300 0.920 1.00
0.4 4.74 4100 0.820 1.00
0.3 6.65 13,000 0.630 0.99
0.2 9.35 36,000 0.340 0.91
0.1 12.65 85,000 0.073 0.40
0.0 14.62 134,000 0.000 0.00
4 T.Pavlovic
ThecoreoftheSun‘sradiusisuptor=0.25R ,andthecoretemperatureis107°C,
s
andpressureisabout1015Pa.Inthecoresolarenergyisproducedinthermonuclear
processofconvertinghydrogenintohelium.
The energy generated in the core in the form of gamma quantas, neutrinos and
energyparticles,istransmittedthroughtheradiationlayers(0.25R <r <0.85R ),
s s
towardsthesurfaceoftheSun,andfromthereoutintothesurroundingspace.
Abovetheradiationzonethereisaconvectionzonespanningthedistanceof0.85
R < r < 1 R . In the convective zone there are atoms and negative hydrogen ions
s s
which are very good absorbers of solar radiation. Due to the absorption of solar
radiationintheconvectivezonethereappearslargenegativegradientoftemperature
andconvectiveinstability(turbulentflowofionizedgases),accordingtowhichthe
layerisnamed.
InmultipleinelasticcollisionsgammaquantasgeneratedinthecoreoftheSun
losetheirenergy,sothatfromthesurfaceoftheSun,photonsfromtheopticalpart
ofthespectrumareemitted.Duetothelong-lifeoftheexcitedstatesofatoms(105
years)andinelasticscatteringofphotonsalongtheirjourney,thephotonstravelfrom
thecoretothesurfaceoftheSunabout106years[1–4].
1.2 AtmosphereoftheSun
TheatmosphereoftheSuniscomposedofthephotosphere,thechromosphereand
thecorona.
ThephotosphereisashinysurfaceoftheSunthicknessof~200km,whichisseen
fromtheEarthwiththenakedeye.Thisstemsfromthefactthatthemeanlengthof
thephotons’freepathisapproximatelyequaltothethicknessofthephotosphere,so
thatphotonscandirectlycomeoutandgointothesurroundingspace.Photosphere
densityis~10−4 kg/m3,theconcentrationofparticles~1023 atom/m3,andthetotal
massM ~1020 kg.Bycomparison,themassofalltheoceansontheEarth(~1021
f
kg)isgreaterthanthemassofthephotosphere.Thetemperatureofthephotosphere
isabout5527°C.Abovethephotospherethereareotherlayersofsolaratmosphere.
Inthelowerlayer—thechromosphere,thetemperatureisfallingslightly,whereby
on1000kmabovethephotosphereitreachesaminimumof~3727°C.Afterthat,the
temperaturerapidlyrisessothatinthetoppartofthesolaratmosphere—thecorona,
insomeplacesitreaches~106°C.Fromthephotospheresolarradiationreachesthe
Earthintheformofanopticalcontinuum,withdiscretespectrallinesofhydrogen,
heliumandotherelements.Thelightfromthephotosphereispartiallyabsorbedinto
thechromosphereandcorona,whichresultsintheappearanceofthedarkabsorption
lineswhichareknownasFraunhofer lines(Fig.3).
Thesurfaceofthephotosphereisnothomogeneous,itconsistsofaseriesoflight
anddarkgranules,sunspotsandmanyotherphenomena(Fig.4).
Granules arethepillarsofgaseseruptingfromtheconvectionzoneintophoto-
sphere(brightgranules)andascooled(darkgranules)returntotheconvectivezone.
Thetemperatureofthebrightgranulesisby100–200°Chigherthanthetemperature