The struggle to afford adequate energy: different ways of knowing fuel poverty

183 Pages·2016·2.94 MB·English

by  Rose Chard

The struggle to afford
adequate energy: different ways
of knowing fuel poverty

Rose Chard

This thesis is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree
of Doctor of Philosophy
September 2015
Declaration

This is to certify that this thesis is entirely my own work and that none of the material
has previously been presented for a higher degree at any university.

Signed………………………… Date………………..

i
Abstract
This thesis examines the co-existence of three ways of knowing fuel poverty –
statistical, procedural and experiential – how they interrelate and interact and the
implications that follow for the opportunities and challenges of tackling what has
proved a persistent inequality and injustice in UK society. There has been significant
policy attention and practical action taken over the last two decades which has
involved the development of definitions, categories, processes and procedures
through which action can be directed and enacted. All of this has been an attempt to
know and act upon the struggles that are experienced by ‘fuel poor’ households. The
focus of this thesis will be on different ways in which the phenomenon of fuel poverty
can be, and is being, known – through the immediate everyday experiences of
households, through the procedures developed and followed by local organisations
working to provide help to those ‘in need’ and through the statistical definition and
modelling that provides the foundation of government policy. These three ways of
knowing are investigated through a research design taking a qualitative approach
involving interviews with older householders, ethnographic-style observations with
three local organisations in England during the winter of 2012 – 2013, and analysis of
policy and related documents on statistical modelling. The thesis found that the
statistical and experiential ways of knowing are characterised and understood by
fundamentally different forms of knowledge and processes of knowledge production,
with the procedural way of knowing needing to directly interact with both the statistical
and experiential understandings of fuel poverty. Flows of resources and knowledge
show how three different ways of knowing fuel poverty interrelate and interact through
policy and action on the ground. These findings have implications for future action
against fuel poverty, especially where partnership working and direct interaction with
households is concerned.

ii
Acknowledgements

This PhD would not have been possible without the support of the ESRC and the
EDF R&D ECLEER Programme as part of a CASE studentship at Lancaster
University.

Thank you to the supervision of Gordon Walker and Nigel Clark, along with Simon
Guy, Louis Neven and Sam Brown from the Conditioning Demand project, whose
guidance, enthusiasm and patience have been unwavering throughout the last four
years. They have all provided inspiration, both in person and in their writing, from
which I have learnt that I could plant my own garden (including cabbages!) for
readers to walk through, consider and take away different ideas and inspiration.
Particular thanks also needs to go to Will Medd for, without his presence, I would not
have been able to create a piece of work that felt true to myself.
And to my “supervisors” of all things non-PhD, I am endlessly grateful for the
unwavering support of my parents who never let me forget that they were there with
me every single step of the way. None of my journey to this point would have been
possible without them.

My colleagues and friends of Lancaster Environment Centre and the DEMAND
centre have provided invaluable support, advice, laughter, space to be curious but
most of all, understanding. Without them the journey would have been harder and
much less fun. The water may pour (literally) but, with them, I have learnt to dance in
the rain despite it all.

And finally, the participants, who may never know the effect that they have had on
me, as a person and as a researcher, but with their influence, I am now ready to take
steps into a new chapter. This thesis is undoubtedly for them. From a small girl I
wanted to be ahead of where I was, believing that after my first day at school I would
be able to read my bedtime story. It has been the same story for my PhD, on the first
day I expected to get it right but over a thousand days later I still don't feel like I can
imagine the whole of the story. Instead it has taught me that I must take further steps
in trying to ensure that there are far better things ahead than any we leave behind for
the fuel poor.

iii
Contents
Declaration ......................................................................................................... i
Abstract ............................................................................................................. ii
Acknowledgements .......................................................................................... iii
Contents ........................................................................................................... iv
List of tables and figures.................................................................................. vii
Abbreviations ................................................................................................. viii
Chapter 1: Introduction ........................................................................................ 1
1.1 The beginning: energy and the struggle for affordability ............................. 1
1.2 Three ways of knowing: statistical, experiential and procedural .................. 4
1.3 The research aim and questions ................................................................ 6
1.4 Contribution to the field ............................................................................... 7
1.5. The thesis outline ...................................................................................... 8
Chapter 2: The struggle to afford adequate energy - Exploring the evidence ......11
2.1. Introduction ..............................................................................................11
2.2. Responses to the struggle to afford adequate energy ...............................11
2.2.1 Altering energy use .............................................................................12
2.2.2 Financial management and debt .........................................................14
2.3 Consequences for welfare .........................................................................16
2.4 Explanations of the phenomenon ..............................................................18
2.4.1 Energy prices ......................................................................................19
2.4.2 Energy efficiency of the home .............................................................21
2.4.3 Household income ..............................................................................23
2.5 Engaging with theoretical perspectives on fuel poverty ..............................25
2.6 Conclusions ...............................................................................................29
Chapter 3: Investigating fuel poverty through case studies .................................31
3.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................31
3.2 Investigating the statistical way of knowing ................................................32
3.2 Selecting three case studies ......................................................................34
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3.2.1 Rationale ............................................................................................34
3.2.2 The criteria ..........................................................................................35
3.3 Area studies ..............................................................................................36
3.4 Ethnographic observations of organisations and advisors .........................37
3.4.1 Within the organisation........................................................................38
3.5 Interviews with older residents ...................................................................40
3.5.1 Operationalisation ...............................................................................41
3.5.2 Fieldwork diary ....................................................................................44
3.5.3 Emotions and vulnerability ..................................................................45
3.6 Analysis .....................................................................................................46
3.7 Summary ...................................................................................................48
Chapter 4: Power in numbers? A national statistical way of knowing fuel poverty
.................................................................................................................................49
4.1 Introduction ...............................................................................................49
4.2. Fuel poverty: what are we aiming for? ......................................................50
4.3 The fuel poverty category in policy ............................................................51
4.3.1 The two official fuel poverty definitions and related modelling .............56
4.3.2. Vulnerability in modelling ...................................................................59
4.4 A fixed idea of fuel poverty or a changing picture? ....................................61
4.5 Conclusions ...............................................................................................66
Chapter 5: “Taking the chill off” - the experiential way of knowing fuel poverty ....68
5.1. Introduction ..............................................................................................68
5.1.1. Why capabilities and fuel poverty? .....................................................71
5.2. Warmth, heating and health ......................................................................72
5.3. Costs, Coping and ‘Common Sense’ ........................................................76
5.3.1. Temporal and spatial patterns of heating the home ............................78
5.3.2. Using secondary heating devices .......................................................80
5.3.3. Using additional clothing and other items ...........................................82
5.3.4. Adjusting daily routines ......................................................................83
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5.4. “I may be aged, but I’m not infirm”: reflecting on coping and ageing .........84
5.5 Judgements, coping and the happy poor: locating justice in the lived
experience ............................................................................................................88
5.5.1 Adaptation and coping ........................................................................90
5.6 Conclusions ...............................................................................................92
Chapter 6: Warming up the community - procedural spaces of fuel poverty ........95
6.1. Introduction ..............................................................................................95
6.2. Why local? ................................................................................................99
6.2.1 From national government to local actors and back again ...................99
6.2.2 The three local organisations ............................................................ 105
6.3. Finding and assessing fuel poverty in the home ..................................... 107
6.3.1. ‘Finding’ the fuel poor ....................................................................... 107
6.3.2. Assessing: the home visit ................................................................. 110
6.4. Addressing fuel poverty .......................................................................... 114
6.5 Evaluating progress on fuel poverty ......................................................... 118
6.6. Conclusions ............................................................................................ 120
Chapter 7: Conclusions ..................................................................................... 123
7.1 Restating the research questions ............................................................ 123
7.2. Characterising the three ways of knowing fuel poverty ........................... 123
7.2.1 The statistical way of knowing ........................................................... 125
7.2.2 The experiential way of knowing ....................................................... 125
7.2.3 The procedural way of knowing ......................................................... 126
7.3 The understandings brought forward by the ways of knowing .................. 127
7.3.1 The statistical way of knowing ........................................................... 127
7.3.2 The experiential way of knowing ....................................................... 128
7.3.3 The procedural way of knowing ......................................................... 128
7.4 Interactions and interrelations .................................................................. 129
7.4.1. Flows of knowledge ......................................................................... 131
7.4.2 Flows of resources ............................................................................ 133
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7.5 Implications and recommendations ......................................................... 134
7.6 Looking to the future ................................................................................ 140
7.7 Further research ...................................................................................... 142
7.8 Reflections on methods ........................................................................... 143
References .................................................................................................... 145
Appendix A – home visit handout .................................................................. 163
Appendix B – interview schedule ................................................................... 167
Appendix C – analytical coding framework .................................................... 173

List of tables and figures
Figure 1.1 Average proportion of winter deaths that are excess, 1988-1997,
selected European countries. Adapted bar chart from Hills (2011: p71) based on data
in Healy, 2003. .......................................................................................................... 2
Figure 1.2 Chart of seasonal fluctuations in mortality in cold and warm homes in
England, 1991. Source: Wilkinson et al (2001, p16) .................................................. 3
Figure 2.1 Fuel poverty, income poverty, energy efficiency and fuel prices, 1996 –
2010, England (except prices – UK data) Source: Hills (2011, p14) ..........................19
Figure 2.2. Retail price of domestic energy compared to the Consumer Prices
Index (the prices of a ‘typical’ basket of goods and services) Source: DECC (2015a)
.................................................................................................................................20
Table 3.1 Documents included in statistical way of knowing methodology ..........33
Figure 3.1 Release of core documents on the statistical way of knowing ............34
Table 3.2. The characteristics of interviewees across all three case studies .......42
Table 4.1. Household type under each definition. Adapted from Department of
Energy and Climate Change (2012a) ........................................................................54
Figure 4.1 Key data sources for modelling fuel poverty. Adapted from Chapter 2 in
the The Fuel Poverty statistics methodology and user manual 2014 edition. ...........57
Table 5.1. Interviewee characteristics .................................................................74
Table 6.1 Current and past schemes that have been designed to tackle fuel
poverty in some way in England ............................................................................. 100
Table 6.2 Key characteristics of the three organisations in the research ........... 106
Figure 6.1 Home visit form for organisation A (1/1) ........................................... 111
Figure 6.2a Home visit form for organisation B (1/2) ......................................... 111
Figure 6.2b Home visit form for organisation B (2/2) ......................................... 111
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Figure 6.3a Home visit form for organisation C (1/4) ......................................... 111
Figure 6.3b Home visit form for organisation C (2/4) ......................................... 111
Figure 6.3c Home visit form for organisation C (3/4) ......................................... 111
Figure 6.3d Home visit form for organisation C (4/4) ......................................... 111
Table 6.3 Advices and devices offered by the three organisations .................... 115
Figure 6.4 Extracts from the sections on energy in home visits forms of two
organisations .......................................................................................................... 116
Figure 6.5 Extract from evaluation of Organisation A’s annual report 2011 ....... 120
Table 7.1 Summary of how different ways of knowing are characterised and how
they understand and identify fuel poverty ............................................................... 125
Figure 7.1 The flows of knowledge between the different ways of knowing fuel
poverty ................................................................................................................... 130
Figure 7.2 The flows of resources between the different ways of knowing fuel
poverty. White text: enablers of resource flows. Black text: resources. ................... 133

Abbreviations
CERT: Carbon Emissions Reduction Target
CSE: Centre for Sustainable Energy
CWP: Cold Weather Payment
DECC: Department of Energy and Climate Change
ECO: Energy Company Obligation
ESH: electric storage heating
EWD: Excess Winter Deaths
GCH: gas central heating
HECA: Home Energy Conservation Act
JRF: Joseph Rowntree Foundation
LIHC: Low Income High Cost definition of fuel poverty
NEA: National Energy Action
OFGEM: Office of Gas and Electric Markets
WFP: Winter Fuel Payment
WHD: Warm Home Discount

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Chapter 1
Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 The beginning: energy and the struggle for affordability
We live with energy all around us. Hidden within switches, wires, pipes and
meters ticking over, we inhabit our houses not using energy but doing things that use
energy. But behind closed doors lies a struggle for many. A struggle to afford energy.
Unable to use the services that energy is normally in the home to provide.
Discussions often focus on "the fuel" or "the energy" but the heart of the struggle is
an invisible restriction, a pressure on people being able to live in their home in a way
that allows them to lead a healthy comfortable life. It is, for example, the pregnant
woman who is not getting enough calcium because she does not buy dairy products
because she doesn't have her fridge turned on. She is trying to save up money so
that when her child is born she can have the heating on. Here is the struggle for her
and many others to afford adequate energy.
The price of energy has increased rapidly over the last two decades
(Department of Energy & Climate Change 2015a), pricing it above what many
household budgets can readily cope with. As large energy bills arrived on doorsteps,
people realised that as a portion of the household budget, energy bills were
increasing without the same increase in incomes. Their day to day struggle to
manage household finances became all the more intense.
Some people are more at risk of the consequences of this struggle than
others, particularly those more vulnerable to living in a cold home. Older people,
those with young children and disabled people are predominantly understood to be
the most vulnerable groups because of the increased risk to their health and their
potentially difficult existing living situations.
The decisions that householders feel that they have to make as a
consequence varies depending on their situation, their needs and where they might
be able to find flexibility, but they can include spending less on food and living in cold
temperatures that put physical and mental health and household disconnection from
energy at risk (Beatty, Blow & Thomas F. Crossley 2014; Anderson et al. 2012;
Gibbons & Singler 2008; Harrington et al. 2005; O’Neill et al. 2006; O’Sullivan et al.
2014; Bhattacharya et al. 2003). However the most severe consequence of this
struggle is the additional deaths as a result of cold periods, which is especially
marked for households in the UK (Healy 2003) as illustrated in Figure 1.1.
1