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TheStructureofArguments
humancognitiveprocessingisaforumforinterdisciplinaryresearchonthe
nature and organization of the cognitive systems and processes involved in
speaking and understanding natural language (including sign language),and
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Editors
MarceloDascal,TelAvivUniversity
RaymondW.Gibbs,UniversityofCaliforniaatSantaCruz
JanNuyts,UniversityofAntwerp
Editorialaddress
JanNuyts,UniversityofAntwerp,Dept.ofLinguistics(GER),
Universiteitsplein1,B2610Wilrijk,Belgium.
E-mail:[email protected]
EditorialAdvisoryBoard
MelissaBowerman,Nijmegen(cid:1);WallaceChafe,SantaBarbara,CA(cid:1);
PhilipR.Cohen,Portland,OR(cid:1);AntonioDamasio,IowaCity,IA(cid:1);
MortonAnnGernsbacher,Madison,WI(cid:1);DavidMcNeill,Chicago,IL(cid:1);
EricPederson,Eugene,OR(cid:1);FrançoisRecanati,Paris(cid:1);
SallyRice,Edmonton,Alberta(cid:1);BennyShanon,Jerusalem(cid:1);
LokendraShastri,Berkeley,CA(cid:1);DanSlobin,Berkeley,CA(cid:1);
PaulThagard,Waterloo,Ontario(cid:1)
Volume7
TheStructureofArguments
byIzchakM.Schlesinger,TamarKeren-PortnoyandTamarParush
The Structure of Arguments
Izchak M. Schlesinger
Tamar Keren-Portnoy
Tamar Parush
HebrewUniversityofJerusalem
JohnBenjaminsPublishingCompany
Amsterdam(cid:1)/(cid:1)Philadelphia
TM ThepaperusedinthispublicationmeetstheminimumrequirementsofAmerican
8
NationalStandardforInformationSciences–PermanenceofPaperforPrinted
LibraryMaterials,ansiz39.48-1984.
LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationData
Schlesinger,I.M.
TheStructureofArguments / IzchakM.Schlesinger,TamarKeren-Portnoy,Tamar
Parush.
p. cm.(HumanCognitiveProcessing,issn1387–6724;v.7)
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.
1.Persuasion(Rhetoric)2.Reasoning.I.Keren-Portnoy,Tamar.II.Parush,Tamar. III.
Title.IV.Series.
P302.S337 2001
168--dc21 2001035012
isbn9027223599(Eur.)/158811070(cid:3)2(US)(Hb;alk.paper)
©2001–JohnBenjaminsB.V.
Nopartofthisbookmaybereproducedinanyform,byprint,photoprint,microfilm,orany
othermeans,withoutwrittenpermissionfromthepublisher.
JohnBenjaminsPublishingCo.·P.O.Box36224·1020meAmsterdam·TheNetherlands
JohnBenjaminsNorthAmerica·P.O.Box27519·Philadelphiapa19118-0519·usa
To our families, who taught us much about arguing
Contents
Preface xi
Introduction xiii
Chapter 1. Reasoning and arguing 1
1. Underlying structures 2
2. Progressive and regressive modes 7
3. Phases of reasoning 9
Chapter 2. Arguments as operations 13
1. Some basic terms 13
2. The nature of formalizations 17
3. From argument to discussion 20
4. Classes of operations 20
5. Basic concepts — a summary 22
Chapter 3. Operators, targets, outcomes 25
1. Operators 25
2. Targets 44
3. Outcomes 51
4. The symbols of the notation — a summary 62
Chapter 4. Compounds 65
1. Implications 65
2. Disjunctions 70
3. Conjunctions 71
4. Compound targets 74
5. Dependent and independent eVects 75
viii The Structure of Arguments
Chapter 5. Justifications 79
1. The nature of JustiWcation 79
2. The formalization of JustiWcations 84
3. Some common JustiWcations 90
4. JustiWcations as targets 98
5. Dependent and independent eVects 100
6. Deciding on the appropriate analysis 104
Chapter 6. Conflations 109
1. The concept of conXation 109
2. Outcomes of conXations and conXations as targets 110
3. ConXating operators 116
4. ConXating Designations 122
5. ConXations with compounds and with sequences 127
Chapter 7. Questions 129
1. Question operators and outcomes 130
2. Backdrops 134
3. Questions in conXations 136
4. Questions as targets 140
5. Answers 143
6. ‘Don’t know’ 145
Chapter 8. Connections 147
1. A notation for connections 148
2. “Unrestricted” connections 149
3. Between-argument connections 157
4. Connections as toned-down operations 159
5. Summary 161
Chapter 9. Relations within and between arguments 163
1. ‘Argument’ defined 163
2. Relations between arguments 175
3. “Encapsulated” dialogues 180
4. Toward a typology of arguments 182
Chapter 10. Expressed arguments 191
1. Arguing and understanding arguments 191
Contents ix
2. An experimental study of omissions 198
3. Experimental studies of précis writing 203
4. Targeting the expressed argument 208
Notes 223
References 239
Appendices 247
Author index 253
Subject index 257
List of symbols 261
Description:This text deals with the cognitive structure of arguments. A formal system of analysis is proposed that reflects the reasoning processes leading to an argument. It is argued that behavioural studies of argumentation can be fruitfully conducted on the basis of this system. Topics include: reasoning a
