Table Of Content28
Topics in
Current Physics
Topics in Current Physics
Founded by Helmut K. V. Lotsch
Beam-Foil Spectroscopy 17 Solitons
Editor: S. Bashkin Editors: R. Bullough, P. Caudrey
18 Properties of Magnetic Electron Lenses
2 Modern Three-Hadron Physics
Editor: P. W. Hawkes
Editor: A. W. Thomas
19 Theory of Chemisorption
3 Dynamics of Solids and Liquids by Editor: J. R. Smith
Neutron Scattering
20 Inverse Scattering Problems in Optics
Editors: S. W. Lovesey and T. Springer
Editor: H. P. Baltes
4 Electron Spectroscopy for Surface
21 Coherent Nonlinear Optics
Analysis
Recent Advances
Editor: H. Ibach Editors: M. S. Feld and V. S. Letokhov
5 Structure and Collisions of Ions 22 Electromagnetic Theory of Gratings
and Atoms Editor: R. Petit
Editor: I. A. Sellin
23 Structural Phase Transitions I
6 Neutron Diffraction Editors: K. A. Muller and H. Thomas
Editor: H. Dachs 24 Amorphous Solids
Low-Temperature Properties
7 Monte Carlo Methods
Editor: W. A. Phillips
in Statistical Physics
Editor: K. Binder 25 Mossbauer Spectroscopy II
The Exotic Side of the Method
8 Ocean Acoustics
Editor: U. Gonser
Editor: J. A. DeSanto
26 Crystal Cohesion and Conformational
9 Inverse Source Problems in Optics Energies Editor: R. M. Metzger
Editor: H. P. Baltes
27 Dissipative Systems In Quantum
10 Synchrotron Radiation Optics
Techniques and Applications Resonance Fluorescence, Optical
Editor: C. Kunz Bistability, Superfluorescence
Editor: R. Bonifacio
11 Raman Spectroscopy
28 The Stratospheric Aerosol Layer
of Gases and Liquids
Editor: R. C. Whitten
Editor: A. Weber
29 Aerosol Microphysics II
12 POSitrons In Solids Chemical Physics of Microparticles
Editor: P. Hautojiirvi Editor: W. H. Marlow
30 Real Space Renormallzation
13 Computer Processing of Electron
Editors: J. M. van Leeuwen and
Microscope Images
T. W. Burkhardt
Editor: P. W. Hawkes
31 Hyperflne Interactions of Radioactive
14 Excltons Editor: K. Cho Nuclei
Editor: J. Christiansen
15 Physics of Superlonlc Conductors
Editor: M. B. Salamon 32 Superconductivity In Ternary
Compounds I
16 Aerosol Microphysics I Structural, Electronic, and Lattice
Particle Interactions Properties
Editor: W. H. Marlow Editors: B. Maple and O. Fischer
The Stratospheric
Aerosol Layer
Edited by R.C. Whitten
With Contributions by
A. W. Castleman W. P. Chu N.H. Farlow
P. Hamill E. C. Y. Inn R. G. Keesee
M. P. McCormick J. B. Pollack P. B. Russell
O. B. Toon R. P. Turco R. C. Whitten
With 62 Figures
Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York 1982
Professor Dr. Robert C. Whitten
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center
Moffett Reid, CA 94035, USA
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-81759-5 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-81757-1
001: 10.1007/978-3-642-81757-1
Ubrary of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data. Main entry under title: The Stratospheric sulfate
aerosol layer. (Topics in current physics; 28) Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Aero
sols-Measurement. 2. ·Sulfates-Measurement. 3. Stratosphere-Measurement. 4. AtmospheriC
chemistry. I. Whitten, R. C. (Robert Craig), 1926-. II. Castleman, A. W. (Albert Welford), 1936- . III. Se
ries. QC882.Sn 551.5'142 81-21208 AACR2
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically those of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, broadcasting, reproduc
tion by photocopying machine or similar means, and storage In data banks. Under § 54 of the German
Copyright Law where copies are made for other than private use, a fee is payable to "Verwertungsge
sellschaftWorr', Munich.'
@ by Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 1982
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1982
The use of registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence
of a specifiC statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protectlve laws and regulations
and therefore free for general use.
2153/3130-543210
Preface
It is now a quarter of a century since Junge and his coworkers recovered the first
sample from the sulfate aerosol layer in the stratosphere. Since that time vast
strides have been made in determining its physical properties and morphology. These
investigations have been performed with instruments on board aircraft and balloon
platforms as in the early days, with ground-based lidar (optical radar), and most
recently with satellite-borne optical instruments. It will become evident in Chapter
2 that in situ measurements by aircI'aft and ,balloon sensors complement rather than
duplicate the remote techniques (lidar and satellite). Hence future programs will
probably continue to utilize direct as well as indirect experimental techniques.
Concurrently, with the observations of the gross properties of the aerosol layer,
la~oratory and theoretical studies have sought to elucidate the chemical and micro
physical processes which influence the formation and growth of the aerosol par
ticles. The laboratory investigations have included studies of gas phase chemistry,
and particle nucleation and growth mechanisms. Theoretical studies have revolved
mainly around a series of models developed by atmospheric scientists. The earliest
of these models was constructed by Junge and his colleagues. With the advent of
third- and fourth-generation computers, the capacity to solve the quite complex
continuity equations govern particle formation, growth, and removal has ad
whi~h
vanced to the point where most of the particle properties can be simulated with
reasonable confidence.
The potential importance of a light-scattering particle layer in the strato
sphere is obvious: pertutbations of the layer, especially due to violent volcanic
eruptions, can lead to substantial, if short-term, alterations in the mean sur
face temperature of the Earth. In fact, the observational evidence for such cor
relations between volcanic activity and climate fluctuations is compelling. Only
recently has man's influence on stratospheric aerosols, and thus the climate, come
under close scrutiny and 'evaluation.
The time for a genera'l review of the chemistry and physics of the stratospheric
aerosol layer therefore appears to be opportune. The present book attempts to fill
this need with a coordinated series of chapters by a group of investigators who
ar~ leaders in the field. An introductory chapter, which sets the general tone of
the volume and gives synopses of current knowledge of the layer and the associated
VI
microphysical processes, is followed by four chapters which go into great detail
on field measurements, associated chemical processes, theoretical models, and
climate effects of aerosols. It is hoped that this treatise will serve as a use
ful reference for those who are engaged or interested in studying stratospheric
aerosols.
Cupertino, California Robept C. Whitten
November 1981
Contents
1. Introduction
By R.C. Whitten and P. Hamill (With 1 Figure) ..•..•..•......•....•...•
1.1 General Discussion ...................•..•.......................•
1.1.1 Historical .......•.................•.......•.........••...
1.1.2 Particle Measurements
1.1.3 Measurements of Precursor Gases 4
1.1.4 Laboratory Measurenlents .., ........................... ...... 5
1.1.5 Models of the Aerosol Layer ...•........•.............•.... 6
1. 2 Infl uence on Cl imate . . .. .. . . .. . •. .. . .. .. .. .. . •. . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Microphysical Processes 7
1.3.1 Nucleation ........•...................•..•...........•.... 7
1.3.2 Condensation and Evaporation ...........•........•.....•... 9
1.3.3 Coagulation 10
1.3.4 Sedimentation 11
1.3.5 Transport ....•..........•.....•......•....•............... 12
References 13
2. Observations. By E..C. Y. Inn, N.H. Farlow, P.B. Russell, McCormick,
r~.p.
and W.P. Chu (With 27 Figures) ........... .•. .•. .•. ••.•..... ••. .•..... 15
2.1 Measurements of Precursor Gases in the Stratosphere .•......•....• 15
2.1.1 In Situ Mass Spectrometer Method ...•...•...•...........•.. 15
2.1.2 In Situ ,Filter Collection 16
2.1.3 In Situ Cryogenic Collection .••.••.... •..•.... ........ .•.• 17
2.1.4 Remote Sensing Methods .....•..••..•.......•..............• 21
2.1.5 Summary of Stratospheric Observations of Sulfur Gases 21
2.2 Aircraft and Balloon Measurement of Aerosol Properties 23
2.2.1 Aerosol Constituents 23
2.2.2 Aerosol Properties 23
2.2.3 Detection Methods 24
2.2.4 Analytical Techniques 25
2.2.5 Statistical Treatments ...................................• 26
2.2.6 Aitken Nuclei ............................................. 27
VIII
2.2.7 Larger Acid Droplets 27
2.2.8 Granular Inclusions 30
2.2.9 Cosmic Dust 30
2.2.10 Volcanic Ash ..•.... .•................ .•. ....... .......... 31
2.2.11 Variations 31
2.2.12 Discussion ............•...........•...................•.. 33
2.3 Li dar Measurements ...••.•..•........•.•...•.....••.••..•........ 34
2.3.1 The Lidar Technique ....•.....•.•..••............••....•.. 35
2.3.2 Survey of Results .•.••...•...•.•••.•...•..••.......•..... 37
2.3.3 Comparisons of Lidar and Other Results 43
2.3.4 Additional Applications 46
2.4 Satellite Observations 47
2.4.1 Present Spacecraft Experiments 49
2.4.2 Orbital Considerations ..............•..•..••......••..... 52
2.4.3 Results Obtained with SAM II ...•.•..•.....•.............. 54
2.4.4 Results Obtained with SAGE 60
2.4.5 Ground-Truth Comparisons .................••...•.......... 62
2.4.6 Applications ...••.•....................•.•....•.......... 64
References 64
3. The Chemical Kinetics of Aerosol Formation
By R.G. Keesee and A.W. Castleman, Jr. (With 3 Figures) .......•...... 69
3.1 Chemical Origin ......•.......•..••.•....•.•.•.....•............. 69
3.2 Nucleation •..•.••..••.••...•.••.••..••••..•..•..••....•.•....•.. 74
3.3 Nucleation Mechanisms in the Stratosphere ........•.•....•..•.... 78
3.3.1 Binary Nucleation 79
3.3.2 Ternary Nucleation 80
3.3.3 Binary Heterogeneous Nucleation .......•......•••....•...• 80
3.3.4 Heteromolecular Nucleation 81
3.4 Growth and Heterogeneous Reactions 84
3.5 Conclusions 90
References 90
q. Models of Stratospheric Aerosols and Dust
By R.P. Turco (With 16 Figures) •.....•..••..••••...•..••...........•. 93
4.1 Overview .......•..•...........•..•..••...•.••..•...........•.... 93
4.2 The Generalized Aerosol Continuity Equation 95
4.3 Aerosol Models 100
4.3.1 The Simulated Distributions of Aerosol Precursor Gases 102
4.3.2 Aerosol Nucleation Models ....••...•.•....••.......••.•.•. 105
4.3.3 Calculated Properties of the Aerosols 106
IX
4.4 Models of Upper Atmospheric Dust 111
4.5 Anthropogenic Perturbations of the Aerosols 113
4.6 Conclusions 117
References 117
S. Stratospheric Aerosols and Climate
By O.B. Toon and J.B. Pollack (With 15 Figures) ....................... 121
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.2 Statistical Relations Between Volcanic Explosions and Climatic
Changes • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
5.2.1 Changes Observed After Single Eruptions ................... 123
5.2.2 Changes Observed During Epochs of Volcanic Activity 127
5.3 Theoretical Relationships Between Volcanic Explosions and Climate 133
5.3.1 Radiative Properties of the Aerosols ...................... 133
5.3.2 Sensitivity Studies of the Effects of Aerosols on Climate 140
5.3.3 Theoretical Studies of the Effect of Volcanoes on Climate 143
5.4 Studies of Anthropogenic Alterations of the Stratospheric
Aerosol Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
5.5 Summary 145
References 146
Subject Index .....................................•....................•.. 149
List of Contributors
Castleman, A.W., Jr.
University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
Chu, William P.
Atmospheric Environmental Sciences Division, NASA-Langley Research Center,
Hampton, VA 23665, USA
Fa rlow, Neil H.
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
Hamill Patrick
Department of Physics, San Jose State University, San Jose, CA 95192, USA
I,"!n, Edward C.Y.
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
Keesee, Robert G.
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
McCormick, M. Patrick
Atmospheric Environmental Sciences Division, NASA-Langley Research Center,
Hampton, VA 23665, USA
Pollack, James B.
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
Russell, Philip B.
SRI Intern'ational, Menlo Park, CA 94025, USA
Toon, Owen B.
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA
Turco, Richard P.
Rand D Associates, Marina del Rey, CA 90291, USA
Whitten, Robert C.
Space Science Division, NASA-Ames Research Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035
CA 94035, USA
