The sixth finger: Jack Johnson, Muhammad Ali, and the unconscious race hero in sports

321 Pages·2015·14.85 MB·English

Atlanta University Center
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12-1-2012
The sixth finger: Jack Johnson, Muhammad Ali, and
the unconscious race hero in sports
Augustus Clark Wood III
Clark Atlanta University
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ABSTRACT
HISTORY
WOOD, AUGUSTUS C. B.A. MOREHOUSE COLLEGE, 2007
THE SIXTH FINGER: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALl,
AND THE UNCONSCIOUS RACE HERO IN SPORTS
Committee Chair: Richard A. Morton, Ph.D.
Thesis dated December 2012
This study examines both the mentality ofblackrace heroes in American sporting history
and the surrounding atmospheric influences onpersonality, mentality, masculinity, and
global perspective on said heroes, using the case studies oficonic boxers Jack Johnson
and Muhammad Au as the primary focus. This study was based on the premise that both
boxers initiated a conscious effort ofracial pride, black agency, and global hegemony
through their consistent success both inside and outside the ring. The researcher found
that in almost blind adoration, African Americans chose two unconscious, self-righteous,
and raceless blacks who utilized their gifted abilities as boxers to only capture full
masculinity inthe forms ofwealth and power. In response to their considerable inferior
treatment at the hands ofthe majority, blacks actively sought dominant representations of
success and defiance ofthe norms to carry their dreams ofblack pride. However, both
Jack Johnson and Muhammad Ali repeatedly rejected their anointed statuses of“race
men” for the chance at true wealth and power in the commercialization and exploitation
1
oftheir masculinity. In addition, the background environments ofboth figures are
essential to the true analysis ofthe mentality and perception ofthe boxers. The
conclusions drawn from the finding suggestthat both individuals rejected their hometown
communities’ ideals ofagency and activism and instead opted to embrace the more
lucrative ideals ofindependence (Johnson and Galveston) and interdependence (Ali and
Louisville). As the black community witnessed both Jack Johnson and Muhammad Au
continuously thrive and capture success in apredominantly white and commercial
environment, they also sawthe potential to showcase the greatest aspects ofthe American
black race notjust nationally, but also globally to other black groups. Therefore, race
consciousness would both intensify and spread ifpowerful, masculine icons continued to
dominate in societal contests like sports. Because ofthese desires, blacks across the
nation supplied insurmountable support and sustenance to these figures throughout their
careers. In fact, to most blacks throughout the nation, both pugilists possessed
superhuman qualities, or a “sixth finger.” As the twenty first century thrives, blacks
continue the practice ofselecting sporting representatives ofthe race to showcase
dominance in athletics, society, and unconscious racial pride.
11
THE SIXTH FINGER: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE
UNCONSCIOUS RACE HERO IN SPORTS
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY
iN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTERS OF ARTS
BY
AUGUSTUS CLARK WOOD III
DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
DECEMBER2012
©2012
AUGUSTUS CLARK WOOD III
All Rights Reserved
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This work is dedicated to Allyson Wood, Dorcas Wood and Augustus Clark
Wood II, three very, special people. I am heartily thankful to my supervisor, Richard
Morton, and mentor, Alton Homsby Jr., whose encouragement, guidance, and support
from the initial to the final level was essential to the quality ofthe work. Lastly, I offer
my regards and blessings to all those who supported me in any respect during the
completion ofthis project, especially committee members, Drs. Stephanie Evans and
Charmayne Patterson, the Atlanta Fulton Public Library System, and the Auburn Avenue
Research Library, which was the cornerstone ofmy research.
11
TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ii
.
Chapter
1. INTRODUCTION: I SHOT AN ARROW INTO THE AIR: BOXING AND
THE SEARCH FOR MASCULINITY AND RACE CONSCIOUSNESS TN
AMERICA 1
2. THE ARCHITECTS OF FEAR: BLACK SELF-DETERMINATION AND
REDEMPTIONIST POLITICS IN URBAN TEXAS, 1850-1900 23
3. THE MONSTERS ARE DUE ON WALNUT STREET: BLACK AGENCY
AND SELF-DETERMINANT ACTIVISM IN LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY,
1865-1980 47
4. BEYOND THE INVISIBLES: THE RISE OF JACK JOHNSON,
MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE UNCONSCIOUS RACE HERO IN
SPORTS 74
5. I SING THE BODY ELECTRIC! THE GLOBAL RESPONSE TO JACK
JOHNSON, 1907-1912 114
6. “JACK JOHNSON’S GHOST IS WATCHING YOU!” THE GLOBAL
RESPONSE TO THE MUHAMMAD ALl ENIGMA, 1960-1964 144
7. CHILDREN OF PANIC: JACK JOHNSON, MUHAMMAD ALT, AND
SYMBOLS OF DISORDER IN AMERICAN SOCIETY 194
8. NINETY YEARS WITHOUT SLUMBERING: JACK JOHNSON,
MUHAMMAD ALl, AND THE COLLAPSE OF MASCULINITY 238
EPILOGUE 294
BIBLIOGRAPHY 302
III
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
I SHOT AN ARROW INTO THE AIR: BOXING AND THE SEARCH FOR RACE
CONSCIOUSNESS AND MASCULINITY IN AMERICA
There was a moment intime whenthose who were brilliant and powerful were
also sportive and playful. Whenthey took recess from their exhausting and magnificent
strides towards glory, they replenished their darker passions with a myriad of“fun and
games.” The Ancient Egyptian, Roman, and Greek societies embraced brutish games
that served as both an indentation from the harsh realities oflife and as an assessment of
individual authority and influence. Inthis multicu1t~iral and exceptionally diverse world,
such pastimes have since been civilized, and drained ofall but their last few drops of
blood. In fact, the violent and destructive games ofyesteryear have been replaced with
more moderate contests today that personify the exceedingly profitable and productive
elements ofentertainment, commercialization, and sectionalism. Accompanying these
elements are underlying social factors, particularly varying degrees ofracial hierarchal
practices, which have devastatingly affected the atmosphere ofsports. Indeed, racial
hierarchies have existed throughout international sports history, but the distinguishing
factor in recent memory suggests the increased individualization in sports. Originally
hailed as ateam ofheroes for major American cities like New York and Boston, a
gradual shift to singular iconic worship intwentieth century sporting has resulted in
major social and cultural ramifications worldwide.
1
2
This research simultaneously explores, analyzes, and dissects these implications
specifically in the area ofboxing, one ofAmerica’s mostpopular pastimes.
Prizefighting’s first attempts at modernization and popularizationbegan in 1719 when
James Figg, the first bare knuckles boxing champion in history, travelled around England
showcasing exhibition fighting.’ At first, the English were unimpressed as they
considered sporting amusements to be both crude and counterproductive. As the
Revolutionary Era approached and prizefighting extended to the American colonies, both
Puritans and Republicans spread anti-sporting propaganda equating athletics to the
oppressive nature and decadent monarchies ofEurope.2 More religious groups,
especially Protestant sects, followed suit, citing the Sabbatarian restrictions against
gambling, amusements, and drinking.3 However, similarto the decline in white middle
class male manliness inthe twentieth century, the economic shifts in prosperity and
transforming thought patterns on society ushered in a golden age ofsporting at the turn of
the nineteenth century.
The sport’s popularity exploded with the coming ofJack Broughton, called the
“father ofboxing rules” because he introduced aprohibition on eye gouging and
attacking a fallen opponent. Broughton exemplifiedthe demographics that dominatedthe
pugilist sport for centuries: white, working class males with intentto settle a dispute or
earn money. In addition, Broughton added an entertainment value to the sport. Bare
knuckle brawling was brutal and violent, but Broughton’s charisma and untouchable
defense added intrigue that drew supporters. In fact, by the 1820s, industrialization had
brought an influx ofimmigrants to the nation, prompting more citizens to desire sporting
and its facets ofamusement and gambling to offsetthe tiresome work days. Historian
3
Dale Somers noted that, “as the tempo ofindustrialization and urbanization accelerated,
Americabecame a mass society composed ofpeople whose lives were governed
increasingly by the machine and time clock.”4 In similar fashionto the conquerors in
history, Americans’ desire for “fun and games” effectively muted the previously
thunderous voices in opposition to sports.
Regardless ofthe boom in popularity for prizefightingto the public, Northern
politicians convincedthejudiciaries to continuously rule boxing illegal. In effect,
supporters devoted the largerpart ofthe nineteenth century dodging police, bribing law
officials, and holding lucrative fights in secluded areas like barns and abandoned
shipyards. As the objectors correctlypredicted, gambling immediately took control of
pugilism, which many viewed as a major facet ofan immoral society. Bookmaking,
according to protestors, gradually leads to more degenerative practices in a society like
vagrancy, debt and prostitution. Plus, along with excessive gambling came violent riots,
which prompted state legislatures to pass concrete laws outlawing any simple example of
fistfighting at any time. Political objectors wasted no time in celebrating these measures
and looked to spread the message harshly. By 1849, in connection with their Puritan
past, Massachusetts in particular set the precedentby upholding numerous convictions of
their anti-prizefighting laws.5
On May 30, 1880, Irishman Paddy Ryan defeated Englishman Joe Goss in
Colliers, West Virginiato become the first world heavyweight champion in boxing. This
momentous event represented the southward shift ofprizefighting in America as
simultaneously more citizens embraced prizefighting and law enforcement sought out
violators. By this point, advertising for bouts was everywhere and the occupation of