The Scythe and the Pentagram: Santa Muerte from Folk Catholicism to Occultism

14 Pages·2016·0.21 MB·English

religions
Article
The Scythe and the Pentagram: Santa Muerte from
Folk Catholicism to Occultism
ManonHedenborg-White1,*andFredrikGregorius2,*
1 DepartmentofTheology,UppsalaUniversity,Box25675105,Uppsala,Sweden
2 DepartmentofCultureandCommunication(IKK)/ArtsandHumanities(KVA),LinköpingsUniversitet,
58183Linköping,Sweden
* Correspondence:[email protected](M.H.-W.);[email protected](F.G.)
AcademicEditors:R.AndrewChesnutandDavidMetcalfe
Received:24February2016;Accepted:27May2016;Published:22December2016
Abstract: SantaMuerteisestablishingapresenceamongpractitionersofcontemporaryoccultism
in Europe and North America. The occult milieu is highly different from the Mexican cult of
SantaMuerte,havingastrongheritageofsecrecyandtraditionassocialcapitalandbeingmostly
middle-classinorientation. Nonetheless,thisCatholicfolksaintwithamostlypragmatic,popular,
andgrassrootscultisbecomingincreasinglypopularamongoccultists. Basedonasurveyofthree
recentbooksonSantaMuertegearedtowardsanAnglophone,occultaudience,itisthereforethe
aimofthisarticletounderstandhowandwhytheSkeletonSaintisattractingadherentsintheoccult
milieu,byanalyzingtheunderlyingcausesofthisgrowingtrend,aswellastheconditionsshapingit.
ItistheoverallargumentofthisarticlethatthebeginningreceptionofSantaMuerteinoccultism
isaresultofperceivedneedsanddemandsspecifictotheoccultmilieuratherthancharacteristics
inherent in the symbol itself, and that an analysis of the ways in which she is spreading outside
ofheroriginalsocioculturalcontextmustbeguidedbyanunderstandingofthenovelonesheis
integratedin.
Keywords: SantaMuerte;occultism;Catholicism
1. Introduction
WhenvisitingthetempleofaDeepSouthoccultlodgein2012,weencounteredsomethingwe
hadnotanticipated. AmongthestatuesandartworkrepresentingEgyptian,Indian,andGreco-Roman
deities, Kabbalistic symbolism, and demonological beings, was a small altar to Santa Muerte.
WhileWesternesotericismisofteneclectic,thiswasthefirsttimewehadencounteredthisMexican
folksaintdoingfieldworkintheesotericmilieu. SantaMuerte’spresencewasnotassurprisingasit
mayseem. Onthecontrary,thesaintisestablishingapresenceamongpractitionersofcontemporary
Westernesotericism,anumbrellatermdenotinganumberofgenealogicallyrelated,heterodoxreligious
phenomenaoriginatingintheRenaissanceandwhoseearliestrootscanbefoundinpaganantiquity.
Althoughprecisedemarcationsvary,anumberofcurrentsarecommonlyincludedinthecategory:
RenaissanceHermeticism,alchemy,andmagic;Germannaturphilosophie;theTarot;somebranchesof
Freemasonry;Rosicrucianism;Theosophy;spiritualism;modernoccultism,Satanism,Paganism,and
aspectsofNewAge. Forthepurposesofthisarticle,thelastgroupofphenomenaisthemostcentral.
Inthenineteenthcentury,whatMaxWeberhastermed“thedisenchantmentoftheworld”birthedwhat
isknownasoccultism,aparticularmanifestationofesotericisminmodernitythatissimultaneouslya
productofandreactionagainstsomeofitscoretenets. Occultismminglesolderesotericworldviews
Religions2017,8,1;doi:10.3390/rel8010001 www.mdpi.com/journal/religions
Religions2017,8,1 2of14
with modern notions of individualism and concepts derived from modern science.1 While older
esotericism was largely Christian, the search for re-enchantment and existential meaning coupled
withgeneraldisillusionmentwiththeChurchcombinedwiththegrowingavailabilityofliterature
on ancient paganism, as well as Asian religions compelled many fin-de-siècle occultists to turn to
Hinduism,Buddhism,andvarietiesofpre-Christianpaganisminthearticulationoftheirideas.
The Anglo-American occult milieu is different from the social context out of which the
contemporaryMexicancultofSantaMuerteemerged. WhileSantaMuerteattractsdevoteesfromall
layersofsociety,manyifnotmostofherMexicanadherentsbelongtotheworkingclass(Chesnut,
Devoted to Death [5], pp. 11–13). Although her connection to cartel violence has been strongly
exaggerated, Santa Muerte is nonetheless popular among many lower level criminals, as well as
policeandcorrectionalofficers(Chesnut,DevotedtoDeath[5],pp.14,96–98,101–2,106–7;Kristensen,
PostponingDeath[6]).Finally,mostofherMexicandevoteeswereraisedCatholic([5],p.115).Incontrast,
thecontemporaryoccultmilieuintheUSandEuropegenerallyattractsmembersofthemiddleclass,
manyofwhomarecollege-educated.2 Westernesotericismalsohasastrongheritageofsecrecyas
social capital, tradition as a high value, and notions of an exclusive, higher truth of reality that is
mostlyavailabletoanelectfew.3
Nonetheless,SantaMuerte,aCatholicfolksaintwithamostlypragmatic,popular,andgrassroots
cultisbecominganincreasingpresenceintheoccultmilieuoutsideofMexico. Basedonasurveyof
threerecentbooksonSantaMuertegearedtowardsanAnglophone,occultistaudience,thepurposeof
thisarticleistoexplicatehowandwhytheSkeletonSaintisattractingadherentsintheAnglo-American
occult milieu, by analyzing the underlying causes of this growing trend as well as the conditions
shapingit.ItistheoverallargumentofthisarticlethatthereceptionofSantaMuerteinAnglo-American
occultismthusfarhasbeenshapedbyperceivedneedsanddemandsspecifictothispartoftheoccult
milieuratherthancharacteristicsinherentinthesymbolitself,andthatananalysisofthewaysinwhich
sheisspreadingoutsideofheroriginalsocioculturalcontextmustbeguidedbyanunderstandingof
thenovelonesheisintegratedin.4
2. WhatisWesternEsotericism?
AcademicdebatesregardinghowproperlytodefineWesternesotericismhavebeenongoingsince
itsinceptionasafieldoflegitimateresearch,andfarexceedthefocusofthisstudy.5 Inthisarticle,weare
1 Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996[1];cf.Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon([2],pp.174–75,395);Owen,
ThePlaceofEnchantment[3];Urban,MagiaSexualis,2006[4].
2 Thereiscurrentlyalackofresearchoncontemporaryoccultism, includingquantitativedataonaverageincomeand
educationallevel.However,itispossibletodrawsomeconclusions,partlyduetothegreateravailabilityofsuchresearch
oncontemporaryPaganismandwitchcraft,whichisdemographicallysimilarandoftenoverlapswithoccultism.Seee.g.,
Berger, Leach, andShaffer, VoicesfromthePaganCensus[7]. However, whileBergeretal. concludethatthebroader
milieuofPaganismandwitchcraftappearstohaveahigherpercentageofwomenthanmen(thisisalsosupportedby
Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon([2],p.401f.),theoppositeappearstobetrueofanumberofinitiatoryoccultfraternities,
includingtheOrdoTempliOrientisandtheDragonRouge.SeeHedenborg-White,forthcomingdoctoraldissertation[8],
andGranholm, DarkEnlightenment([9], pp. 91–92). GranholmalsostatesthatmanymembersoftheDragonRouge
areuniversityeducated([9],pp. 107,197–98). Scholarshavealsoattestedthatmanyoccultistsreadandareinfluenced
byscholarlypublicationsontheirreligiousfield. AspremandGranholm,“ConstructingEsotericisms”[10];Granholm,
DarkEnlightenment([9],p.198).Thisalsosupportstheconclusionthatthecontemporaryoccultmilieuis,byandlarge,quite
highlyeducated.
3 TheimportantroleofsecrecyandinitiationasaformofsocialcapitalinWesternesotericismhasbeendebatedinanumber
ofpublications. Seee.g.,Pasi,“TheProblemsofRejectedKnowledge: ThoughtsonWouterHanegraaff’sEsotericism
andtheAcademy”[11];Stuckrad,LocationsofKnowledge,2010[12];Hanegraaff,EsotericismandtheAcademy,2012[13].
Whileinactualitymanyofthebeliefsandpracticesassociatedwithvariousbranchesofoccultismhaveactuallybeenbroadly
available,manyoccultauthorsnonethelessemphasizeaviewofrealityasmany-layeredandpartlyconcealed.
4 Needlesstosay,therearealsoimportantexamplesofhowelementsofWesternesotericismhavebecomeintegratedinto
thecultofSantaMuerteinMexico,andviceversa. AsthefocusofthisarticleisthereceptionofSantaMuerteamong
Anglo-Americanoccultists,theseprocessesexceedthescopeofthisstudy,anditisourhopethatfutureresearchwill
attendtotheinterfacebetweenoccultismandfolkCatholicisminMexico,aswellasthetrajectoryofthiscrossoveramong
HispanophonedevoteeslivingintheUS.
5 Forabriefreview,seeHanegraaff,EsotericismandtheAcademy,2012([13],pp.314–67).
Religions2017,8,1 3of14
guidedbythetheoreticalmodeldevelopedbypioneeringesotericismscholarWouterJ.Hanegraaff,
whotracestheoriginsofesotericismtothehistoricallyambivalentrelationshipbetweenEuropean
culture and pagan antiquity [13]. Hanegraaff sees Western esotericism as comprised of “rejected
knowledges”;adiversesetofworldviewsandepistemologiesrelegatedtothewastebasketofWestern
cultureinitsattemptstodefinetruereligion,soundscience,andmodernity. AlthoughChristianity
wasthedominantfaithintheRomanEmpireinthelate4thcentury,Platonismremainedacentral
influenceonChristiantheologyupuntiltheReformation([13],p. 77). TheRenaissancewitnessedthe
flourishingofanarrativeofagelesswisdomaccordingtowhichancientsagessuchasZoroaster,Plato,
andHermeswereallmouthpiecesofauniversal,divinewisdomthatwasalsoexpressedinChristian
teachings. Nourishedbytherecentavailabilityofalargecorpusofpagandocuments,aswellastexts
onJewishkabbalahandmagicandsciencefromtheIslamicworld,avibrantintellectualmilieumostly
centeredinItalygaverisetoanumberofprimarilyCatholicthinkersseekingtoharmonizeaspectsof
paganlearning,particularlyreligiousPlatonism,withChristiandoctrine.
FarfromconstitutingarejectionofChristianity,theancientwisdomnarrativecouldbeseenas
a way of bolstering its claims to timeless legitimacy ([13], pp. 5f, 8, 16, 27f, 42, 72f, 77). However,
anumberofoverwhelminglyProtestantcriticsviewedtheancientwisdomnarrativeasevidenceof
thedegeneracyandcorruptionofCatholicism,attackingthethoughtoftheChristianPlatonistsin
anumberofpolemicalwritings. Hanegraaffidentifiesthisgenreastheearlyoriginsofthehistoric
studyofwhatistodayknownasWesternesotericism,beingthefirsttotreatallofthethenexisting
currentstodayseenasesotericasacoherentphenomenon. Thiscanthusbeseenasthefirststageof
discursiverejectionthroughwhichwhatisnowknownasWesternesotericismbegantobeseparated
outasadelimitedculturalfield([13],pp. 78–82,93ff,127). Thesecondphaseismarkedbythelate
17thcenturyandonwardsintotheEnlightenment,whenitwasincreasinglyheldthataspectsofpagan
philosophycouldbeusefulaslongastheywereinharmonywithreasonandwerenotintermixedwith
religion. Thusemergedphilosophicaleclecticism,thatis,thetranshistoricalstudyofphilosophyaimed
atextractingitssupposedlyrationaltruthsfromthemagicalsuperstitionstheywereallegedlymired
in. Hence,thereligiousaspectsofPlatonismwererelegatedtotheculturalwastebasket([13],pp.127ff,
132,140–53).
In other words, Western esotericism sensu Hanegraaff first emerged as a “historiographical
concept”,comprisingasetofepistemologiesandworldviewsthatwererejectedfirstbymainstream
religionasheresyorsin,andsubsequentlybymodernityasirrationalandsuperstitious([13],p.107).
Although this means that Western esotericism is partly a construct, Hanegraaff asserts that the
rejection was not random. On the contrary, the epistemologies ejected through the articulation
oftruereligion,soundscience,andrationalphilosophyshareimportantcharacteristics,namelyafocus
onpanentheismandanemphasisonintuitive,ecstaticknowledgeofultimatereality(gnosis)([13],
pp.371–73). Moreover,thediscursiveexorcismoftheseworldviewscreatedanattractivealternativeto
peopleseekingtochallengebothreligiousdogmatismandmaterialistdisenchantment. Romanticism
is an example of this, which also contributed to the emergence of a self-aware esoteric and occult
milieu that perceived itself as separate from or even opposed to the dual pillars of doctrinal faith
andpositivistscience([13], pp. 23, 243, 253f, 258, 259). Occultismcanthusbeseenasaparticular
manifestationofesotericisminmodernity,secularizedesotericism,ortheattemptsbyesotericiststo
cometogripswithindustrialization,secularization,modernscience,anddisenchantment.6
6 Cf. Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996[1]. Althoughthisisanextremelycompactsummaryofthe
historyanddevelopmentofWesternesotericism,amoredetailedexplicationexceedstheaimandscopeofthisarticleand
isnotstrictlyrelevanttoourimmediatepurpose.FormoreinsightintothehistoryofWesternesotericism,thereaderis
referredtoe.g.,Hanegraaff,EsotericismandtheAcademy,2012[13];Stuckrad,LocationsofKnowledge,2010[12];Hanegraaff,
NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996[1];Faivre,AccesstoWesternEsotericism[14].
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3. SantaMuerteintheOccult
Asmentionedabove,SantaMuerteisbecomingapresenceinthecontemporaryAnglo-American
occultmilieu,andagrowingnumberofwebpages,spellbooksandgrimoiresclearlyaimedatanon-Latin
readershipintegrateSantaMuertewithaspectsofAnglo-Americanoccultism. Below,wewillpresent
and compare the structure and contents of three English-language introductions on Santa Muerte
geared towards a non-Hispanophone, occult audience before proceeding to a discussion of what
thesebooksrevealaboutthecontemporaryoccultmilieu.7 Duetothespaceconfinesofthisstudy,
ourpresentationofthesourcematerialwillbeverybrief. Thethirdwrittenworkscrutinizedwillbe
presentedatgreaterlength,asitissubstantiallylongerthanthetwoothers.
3.1. GrimoireofSantaMuertebySophiaDiGregorio
Published in 2013 by Winter Tempest Books, Sophia diGregorio’s Grimoire of Santa Muerte
comprises117pagesandservesasapracticalintroductiontoSantaMuerteaimedat“English-only
speaking,non-Catholics”(SophiadiGregorio,GrimoireofSantaMuerte[15],p. iii). diGregoriopresents
herselfasanoccultistandformerWiccanfromafamilyofCatholics.8 Shehaspreviouslypublished
books on spell-casting, non-Wiccan witchcraft, and vampires, seemingly mostly through Winter
TempestBooks,andalsoappearstobethepublisher’smainauthor. Incontrasttomoreestablished
esotericpublishinghouses,amajorityofthetitlesissuedbyWinterTempestBooksappeartofocus
onmagicalmethodsforacquiringmaterialwealth,prosperity,orharmingone’senemies. However,
GrimoireofSantaMuerteappearstobeitssolepublicationthatisbasedonLatinAmericanspirituality.9
In terms of the ritual and devotional practices described, Grimoire of Santa Muerte is similar
tomanyspellbooksandpamphletsdistributedinbotanicasonbothsidesoftheUS-Mexicoborder:
mostofthebookismadeupofprayers,instructionsforhowtoestablishanaltar,consecratecandles
andtalismans,andperformspellsaimedatsolvingeverydayproblemsconnectedtorelationships,
prosperity,legalissues,orprotection([15],pp. 33–108). Thebookalsoincludesseveralversionsofthe
novena,atraditionalsequenceofprayerstoberecitedonninesubsequentnights([15],pp. 40–46,76–77,
81). LikemanyHispanophonespellbooksfocusedonSantaMuerte,diGregorioeschewsmorecomplex
theologicalspeculationinfavorofpracticalinstructionsfordevelopingaconcreterelationshipwith
SantaMuerte. TheGrimoirealsocomprisesanoverviewofcolorcorrespondencesandsuitablealtar
offeringstoSantaMuerte([15],pp. 30–31,37–40).
Despitethesesimilarities,diGregorio’streatmentofCatholicismrevealsthattheworkisintended
foradifferentaudiencethanmanyMexicanspellbooksontheSkeletonSaint.AsiscommoninMexican
devotion,sheincludesCatholicprayerssuchasGloryBe,OurFather,andHailMary,andoutlines
theuseoftherosaryandsignofthecrosspriortoinvokingSantaMuerte([15],pp. 20–22). However,
sheintegratesthisCatholiccontentinanon-ChristocentricnarrativebyclaimingthatCatholicismis
reallybornfrom“paganismandtheoccult,althoughthisisofficiallydeniedbythechurch”([15],p.15).
ShearguesthatChristianityhasitsrootsinthepre-ChristianpaganreligionsoftheMediterraneansuch
asthecultoftheGreekgodDionysus,aswellasinastrology,andthedoctrineofthefourelements
ofearth,air,fire,andwater([15],pp.15–17). SheidentifiesJesuswiththesun,“passingthroughthe
twelvesignsofthezodiac,representedintheChristianallegorybythetwelvedisciples”,andclaims
thattheEucharisticwaferoftheCatholicmassrepresentsthesolar, masculinedivineforceunited
withitsfeminineandlunarcounterpart,identifiedwiththecupofwine([15],p. 16). Shealsoclaims
7 Ourinterpretationofthetargetaudienceoftheseworksisbasedontheauthors’self-presentations; thefactthatthe
publishinghousesbehindthemareclearlyorientedtowardsanoccult,Pagan,orNewAgemarket;andthediscursive
conventionstheyrelateto.Ourselectionofbooksisnotintendedtoreflecttheoccultmilieucomprehensively,butratherto
exemplifydifferentapproachestointroducingSantaMuertetoanoccultistaudience.
8 “TheDangersofWiccanCovensandOtherNeo-PaganGroupstoWomenandChildren”[15].
9 Thepublishinghousehasnowebsitepresentingacomprehensivelistingofitspublications.Foranoverview,see“Browseby
BookPublisher:WinterTempestBooks.”[16]
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thattheChristiancrossreallyrepresentsthefourelementsandtheTetragrammaton,andcontends
thatOurFatherisreallyaninvocationoftheelements([15],pp. 17–21). WhilemanyoftheCatholic
aspectsofMexicanSantaMuertedevotionarenominallyretainedindiGregorio’sbook,theyarethus
re-interpretedasaveiledmanifestationoforiginallypaganoroccultteachings. Thiscanbeinterpreted
asawayofmeetingthepreferencesofanAnglo-Americanoccultistreadership.
diGregorio’sidiosyncraticinterpretationofbothancientpaganismandChristianitycanbeseenas
awayofresolvingpossibletensionscreatedbythelargelyCatholicoriginsandcontextoftheMexican
SantaMuertecultwiththewidespreadskepticismtowardsmainstreamChristianityincontemporary,
Anglo-Americanoccultism. diGregorioindicatesherawarenessofthedifficultyofmakingafolksaint
steepedinCatholicsymbolismappealingtoanoccultistreadershipbypaganizingSantaMuerteand
linkinghertotheMexicanunderworldgoddessMictecacihuatl,variousMayandeitiesofdeathandthe
underworld,andGreco-Romandeities,includingThanatos,Athena,Minerva,andHecate([15],p.8).10
diGregorio also explicitly expresses her awareness of this fact by writing that readers who have a
“verynegativeassociationwithwhatseemstobeChristiansymbolism”maysubstituteanelemental
invocationfortheconventionalCatholicopeningrites([15],p.24).Shealsodisplaysanegativeattitude
towardsmainstreamChristianityatlargethatiscommontocontemporaryoccultworks,arguingthat
theChristianviewofdeathrepresents“judgment,punishment,thefiresofHellandseparationfrom
theworldoftheliving”whereaspaganismismorefocusedondeathas“atransitionandachangeof
condition”([15],p. 4). ByexpressingcriticismtowardsmainstreamChristianity,acknowledgingthat
readersmaybeprejudicedtowardstheChristianfaith,andintegratingSantaMuerteintoalineageof
pagandeitiespredatingChristianity,shethusnegotiatestheintroductionofthisCatholicfolksaintto
thenovelcontextofAnglo-Americanoccultism.
3.2. SantisimaMuerte: HowtoCallandWorkWithHolyDeath
“SantisimaMuerte: HowtoCallandWorkwithHolyDeath”wasoriginallypartofanongoing
seriesofpamphletscalledGuidestotheUnderworld,issuedbytheEnglishesotericpublisherHadean
Press. Theseriesfocusedonpracticalmethodsforritualmagicandinvocationofdemonicbeingsas
wellasCatholicsaints,primarilybasedonEuropeangrimoires. Thetextwaslaterreprintedaspartof
acollectionofpamphletsdealingwithsaints. ThepublicationsofHadeanPresscombineolderfolk
magicwithmoreestablishedesotericsystems,suchasreinterpretationsofAleisterCrowley’sThelema
(http://www.shop.hadeanpress.com/recent-releases/). Therearealsoagrowingnumberoftitles
focusedonvariousmodalitiesofAfricanDiasporareligion,exemplifyingagrowingtrendamonga
numberofcontemporaryoccultiststocombineEuropeanfolkmagicwithAfricanDiasporaforms.11
Thepublisherstatesthattheuseofpamphletsasamediumisdeliberate,asitrespondstoalongingfor
pre-Internetexclusivityandauthenticity,linkingitexplicitlytotheuseofmagicalpamphletsinearlier
periods(http://www.hadeanpress.com/guides-to-the-underworld/). Thisstatementisillustrative,
seeminglyindicatingawillingnesstoaddresswhatmaybeseenasasenseofdisenchantmentcaused
bytheincreasingavailabilityofoccultmaterialresultingfromdigitalization.
“SantisimaMuerte: HowtoCallandWorkWithHolyDeath”canthusbeunderstoodaspart
of a nostalgic discourse in contemporary occultism that seeks return to a more authentic magical
practice. Nonetheless,thewayinwhichitsauthor,ConjuremanAli,presentsSantaMuerte,isvery
clearlyshapedbyvaluesandaspirationsspecifictothecontemporaryoccultmilieu. ConjuremanAli,
also known as Dr. Raven, is a well-known writer and practitioner of various forms of folk magic,
bothEuropeanandAfricanDiaspora,andpriestandfounderofoneofthefewsemi-publicQuimbanda
templesactiveintheUSAtoday.
10 TheassociationwithMictecacihuatlisnotuncommoninMexico.Chesnut,DevotedtoDeath([5],p.28).
11 Seee.g.,Frisvold,Exu[17];Frisvold,PombaGira[18];Frisvold,PaloMayombe[19].
Religions2017,8,1 6of14
Theritualspresentedin“SantisimaMuerte”arebasedonoutlinesfoundinMexicanspellbooks,
and include a common version of the novena.12 All are also set within the framework of folk
Catholicism. Similar to many Hispanophone texts on Santa Muerte as well as diGregorio’s work,
the spells are aimed at pragmatic goals. However, Ali’s approach to Santa Muerte is different
from that of diGregorio. Despite addressing a non-Mexican, primarily occultist readership, he is
clearly opposed to any efforts to paganize Santa Muerte, stating that she is a “purely Mexican,
folk-Catholic phenomenon and should be respected as such”, and that attempting to “syncretize
herwithneo-pagandeitiesorremoveherfromherculturalrootswouldbedisrespectfultobothher
andherdevotees”([21],p.161). Thus,heisclearlyopposedtoapproacheslikethatofdiGregorio.
However, he is more neutral to the identification between Santa Muerte and the Aztec goddess
Mictecacihuatl,andinterestinglyalsolesscondemningofMexicanPaganattemptstocreatesyncretism
betweenthetwo([21],p.163). Thus,hisanimosityisseeminglymostlyaimedatEuropeanandNorth
AmericanPagansandoccultists. Thismaybeinterpretedasanattempttoavoidaccusationsofcultural
appropriationwhilesimultaneouslymaintaininganemphasisonwhatisperceivedastraditional.
AlthoughAliseeminglyattemptstopresentSantaMuerteinastraditionalamanneraspossible,
histreatmentofCatholicismisstilldifferentfromthatofatypicalMexicanspellbookandheclearly
anticipates an ambivalent or negative reader response to mainstream Christianity. Although he
stresses that Santa Muerte should be approached like other Catholic saints, he presents this as a
matter of adherence to tradition rather than an expression of his own personal beliefs or those
of his readers. The importance of Catholicism in the development of the Santa Muerte figure is
thusacknowledgedbutsimultaneouslyrelativized,astheCatholiccustomsrecommendedarenot
presentedaspartofanoverarchingexistentialframeworkaccordingtowhichallofcreationshouldbe
interpreted. Ali’sinsistenceontraditionisalsoindicativeoftheparticularconditionsandnormsofthe
contemporaryoccultmilieu,inwhichtheconceptoftraditionholdsveryhighculturalandspiritual
capital.13 Interestingly, Ali’s insistence on tradition and how one should or should not approach
Santa Muerte is also rather untraditional in relationship to the eclectic and non-dogmatic cult of
SantaMuerteinMexico. HisattempttopresentatraditionalinterpretationofSantaMuertecanthus
beseenasawayofcateringtotheveryspecificculturaltastesofanoccultistaudience.
3.3. LaSantaMuerte: UnearthingtheMagicandMysticismofDeath
TomasPrower’sLaSantaMuerte: UnearthingtheMagic&MysticismofDeathisthefirstworkon
Santa Muerte issued by a major esoteric and New Age publishing house, Llewellyn International.
WhileDiGregorioandConjuremanAliclearlytargetanoccultreadership,Prowerdrawsmuchmore
explicitlyonoccultandNewAgesymbolismandpractice.ContrarytoAli,Prowerwritesthatonedoes
nothavetoadoptCatholicritesorcustomsiftheyarecontrarytoone’sownbeliefs,contendingthat
SantaMuertecanbeintegratedintoone’sownreligionandthathermagicisavailabletoanyonewho
approachesher“withanopenmindandanopenheart”([23],pp. 10,31). Thus,Proweralsorelativizes
theimportanceofCatholicismintheSantaMuertecult,althoughinadifferentmanner,bypresenting
ChristianityasbutoneoutofmanyequallyacceptablepathwaystoSantaMuerte. Thissentimentis
alsoechoedinthefactthatthebook—instarkcontrasttoAli’swork—featuresnoprayerstoJesus,
God,oranyothersaint,noranyversionofthenovena. Instead,thespellsarefocusedonvisualizations
andcorrespondences,andProwerwritesthatwordsspokentoSantaMuerteshouldcomefromthe
heartandnotbewrittendown.
12 Forthisarticlewehadthefollowingtitlesavailableforcomparison;Altares,Ofrendas,OracionesyRitualesalaSantaMuerte
(2007);Rey,Victoria(2012). SantaMuerteMagiaVerde. Pita,Laila(2013). TestimoniosdelaSantísima,RelatosVerdaderosde
MilagrosRecibidosporlosfielesseguidoresdelaSantaMuerte,jimenez,Beto(2015)LaBibliadeLaSantaMuerteaswellas
descriptionsofritualsandspellsincludedine.g.,Chesnut,DevotedtoDeath[5];Kristensen,PostponingDeath[6];Fraser,
SantaMuerte.[20]
13 Fordiscussionsontheimportanceoftraditionasasourceofauthorityinesotericism,seee.g.,Hammer,ClaimingKnowledge,
([22],pp.85–200);AspremandGranholm,“ConstructingEsotericisms”[10].
Religions2017,8,1 7of14
ProwerdownplaystheconnectionbetweenSantaMuerteandsocioeconomicmarginalization
that,althoughmentioned,isnotpresentedascentraltohercult. RatherthanintroducingSantaMuerte
asparticularlyconnectedtoanysocialclasssegment,Prowerwritesthatherdevoteesarepartofa
mysteryschoolakintotheEleusinianmysteriesofAncientGreece([23],p. 30). Healsopresentsatype
ofarticleoffaithforthedevoteesofSantaMuerte. Referringtothecultas“we”,hepresentshimselfas
aspokespersonforalargercommunityofadherents:
Essentially, we believe that the world is good. We believe that the divine energy
(God,theuniverse,theTao,etc.) isperfect,andsincethatdivineenergyisineverything,
everything is perfect. (...) The problems of life result from a self-disassociation with
everythingelse,thebeliefthatyouareseparatefromallotherthings. (...) Bybelieving
thatweareallequallyconnectedintheweboflife,harmingothersbecomesmuchless
appealingsincethedestructionofasinglestrandultimatelyaffectsthewholeandthreatens
thestabilityoftheentireweb. Amorephilosophicalconceptofthisbeliefispopularly
knownindharmicreligionsaskarma. Everythingyoudowilleventuallycomebackto
you. (...) Thus, a devotee of La Santa Muerte and a practitioner of her magic would,
attheveryleastonaselfishlevel, notwanttocauseharmtoanotherbecauseitwould
resultinharmultimatelycomingtothemselves. Althoughnotalldevoteesexplicitlycallit
karma,thisethicofcosmicreciprocityisamaintenetofworkingwithLaSantaMuerteand
understandinghowtoutilizehermagic([23],p. 11).
Healsocontends:
AnancientBuddhisttreatisesaysthatholdingontoangerislikegraspingahotcoalwith
theintentofthrowingitatsomeone;youaretheonewhogetsburned. Theangerandhate
weharborwithinusaffectsusnegatively. Evenbeforereleasingahexandsufferingthe
karmicconsequencesofdoingso,angerandhatemakeusspirituallyandphysicallysick
([23],p. 215).
TheabovequotedemonstratesaverydifferentattitudetoSantaMuertetothatofConjuremanAli,
whoincludesritualsforharmingandevenkillingenemies,andmostlikelyalsofrommanyofthe
SkeletonSaint’sMexicandevoteesonbothsidesoftheMexico-USborder.14 Whileethicalprescriptions
arealsopresentinsomeoftheMexicanliterature,Prower’snotionof“cosmicreciprocity”isphrased
intermsofwesternizednotionsofkarmathatcanbetracedtotheinterestinHinduismandBuddhism
infin-de-siècleoccultism,ratherthantheCatholicdoctrineofsin. Hisattitudeto“cosmicreciprocity”
as something akin to a natural law is similar to that found among many Wiccans ([2], p. 396).
ProweralsoclearlydrawsonNewAgediscoursesofuniversalinterconnectedness,positivethinking,
and westernized interpretations of Indian religion ([1], pp. 130, 132, 238–42, 286, 296, 374, 467,
488–90;[24],p. 110).
In contrast to both Ali and diGregorio, Prower places especial emphasis on Santa Muerte’s
femininity,construedintermsthatclearlydrawondiscoursesofgenderdominantinmanyforms
of Wicca, in which the four elements are gender coded and the universe seen as governed by a
masculine-femininepolarity[25–28]:
[I]n the eyes of outside traditions, La Santa Muerte is most often associated with the
elementsofearthandwater. Deitiesoffemininityanddeathtendtobeassociatedwith
theearthbecauseofitsabilitytocreate,sustain,andnurturelife. Earthisalsotheelement
thatexperiencesdeathmostfrequentlythroughthechangingoftheseasonsandthefinite
existenceoforganicmatter. (...) Withregardtowater,LaSantaMuerte’sfemininityand
14 ConjuremanAli,“SantisimaMuerte,”([21],p. 184). Onthemoreambivalentroleofharmfulmagicandcursinginthe
MexicancultofSantaMuerte,seeChesnut,DevotedtoDeath.[5]
Religions2017,8,1 8of14
dualexistenceinboththespiritualandphysicalworldsgrantherthisassociation. Water
is symbolic of emotions and intuition—what is visible on the surface often masks the
profundityofwhatliesbelow. Whilebothmenandwomenpossesslogicandintuition,
ingeneral,womenareblessedwithastrongersenseofintuitivewisdom,thuslinkingthem
withwater([23],p.95f).
ProweralsopresentsagenderedinterpretationofthecolorsassociatedwithSantaMuerte. Drawingon
a Westernized version of Daoist doctrine, he relates her black and white robes to yin and yang,
respectively. Prowerconnectstheblack(or“yin”)SantaMuertetosupposedlyfemininecharacteristics,
suchasreceptivity,whilethewhite(or“yang”)SantaMuerte,seeminglyamoremasculineversionof
her,ismoresuitableforprojectingenergy:
...femininity, intuition, night, soft, cold, wet, and yielding are all categorized under
black yin energy. For these reasons, the black aspect of La Santa Muerte is used in
protectionmagic,wheretheobjectiveisnottoprojectenergy,butratherintuitivelyforesee
negativeenergyandtakeawayitsharmfuleffectsandneutralizeit,or,ifthat’snotpossible,
tobecomeinvisibletotheharmfulenergyandavoiditaltogether. (...) Whenwepurify
something we expel and push all the toxins and negative energies away, just as all the
colorsinthevisiblespectrumareexpelledandpushedawaytomakesomethingappear
white. IntheTaoistsymbolforyin-yang,theyangenergyoftheuniverseissymbolizedby
thewhitesideofthecircle,whichisoftenmisinterpretedasgood,butisbetterunderstood
asaggressivenessandprojecting. Thusmasculinity,logic,day,hard,warm,dry,andgiving
areallcategorizedunderwhiteyangenergy([23],p. 84).
TheaboveexcerptsdealingwithSantaMuerte’sfemininityanditssupposedmagicalconnotationsare
highlyinteresting,illustratingbroaderthemesofgenderconstructionintheoccultandPaganmilieus.
UnlikeAlianddiGregorio,Proweralsoemphasizestheimportanceoftransformingthemagician’s
ownconsciousnessbyenteringintoa“magicalmindset”([23],p. 155f). Prowerarguesthat,inorderto
domagic,onemustfirstaccessanalternatelevelofconsciousnessbytransformingbrainfrequencies
tothemore“dreamlike”levelsofalpha,theta,anddelta[23]. Thisemphasisonconsciousnessasthe
principalritualtooldrawsstronglyonwhatbecameacentralthemeinnineteenthcenturyoccultism
andhascontinuedtobefundamentaltooccultistdiscoursesince[3,4]. Similarly,theinvocationof
science-likelanguagedrawsonthemodernoccultpreoccupationofattemptingtoharmonizemagic
withscientificdiscovery.15
ItisalsoworthnotingthattheuseofstatuesandimagesholdsnoprominentplaceinPrower’s
manual,alsosettingitapartfromthetwopreviouslydescribedworksaswellastheorientationof
muchoftheMexicancultofSantaMuerte, andsomespellsdonotevenmentionSantaMuerteor
any other saint.16 Nonetheless, similar to the spells outlined by Conjureman Ali and DiGregorio,
thoseProwerdetailsaregenerallyorientedtowardsmaterialends,likelove,money,legalmatters,
andprotection.
4. SantaMuerteandtheOccult
4.1. ANewContext
Inthepreviouspages,wehavepresentedthreerecentEnglish-languagebooksonSantaMuerte.
WhilePrower’sisthemostexplicitinthisregard,allthreearegearedtowardsanoccultistreadership
withaverydifferentsocioculturalorientationthanthatoftheMexicancultofSantaMuerte. Thus,
15 Owen,ThePlaceofEnchantment[3];Hutton,TheTriumphoftheMoon([2],pp.174–75,395).Thistendencycanalsobeseenin
muchNewAgethought,seee.g.,Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996([1],pp.62–76).
16 Seee.g.,Prower,LaSantaMuerte([23],p.194).
Religions2017,8,1 9of14
theirstructureandcontentarealsoimpactedbynormsandconventionscurrenttotheoccultmilieu.
Inthefollowingpages,wewillhighlightandanalyzethesignificanceofthevariouswaysinwhichthe
authorsdiscussednegotiatetheseconventions.
BystressingSantaMuerte’sfemininityandbuildingonanessentializedunderstandingofthe
latterasreceptive,intuitive,andpliant,Prowerdrawsonadiscourseofgenderpolaritythathasbeen
centraltomanyformsofmodernoccultism.17 ThiscanbeseenasawayoffamiliarizingSantaMuerte
by integrating her into an established, gendered framework. The tendency to map all of creation
onto a perceived ontological dialectic between masculinity and femininity can partly be traced to
culturaltransformationsduringthenineteenthcentury,andplaystrongpartsinwritingsofanumber
ofprominentoccultistsincludingAleisterCrowley,DionFortune,JuliusEvola,andGeraldGardner,
thefounderofWicca.18 WhilecontemporaryMexicansocietyishardlylackinginideasaboutgender,
andSantaMuerte’sfemininityiscertainlyimportanttounderstandinghercultinitsMexicancontext,
thisdiscourseofamale–female,active–passivedichotomyontowhichallofcreationcanbemappedis
arguablydrawnfrommodern,Anglo-AmericanoccultismandPaganismratherthanMexicanfolk
Catholicism. diGregorioalsobrieflyreferencestheconceptofgenderpolarityinherinterpretationof
theCatholicmassasasymbolicunionbetweenmasculineandfeminine. ThefactthatAlidoesnot
mentionideasofgenderpolarityatallcanpotentiallybeinterpretedasindicativeofhisaimtoadhere
tomorecloselytowhatheperceivesastradition.
Proweralsopresentsaviewofdeathastransformationbywritingthatthespellsinthebook
areofadestructivenatureinthesenseofthemagicaimingattransformingacurrentstateofbeing
toanother;theoldstatemustdieinordertomakewayforthenew([23],p. 155). Theemphasison
deathastransformationratherthanitsliteralsenseisacommonthemeinoccultism,exemplifiedin
thewritingsofAleisterCrowley,whoidentifiedthehumansoulwiththesunandarguedthatwhen
thesunsetsintheWestitonlyappearstodisappear. Thus,Crowleyreasoned,deathissimplyaname
forthesoul’sonwardjourneyintoanewstateofbeing([33],p. 46). ProweralsoviewsSantaMuerte
asaremedytothetendencyofthemodernworldtohidedeathawayandshelteritscitizensfrom
it([23],p. 19). ThisreflectsacleardifferencebetweenSantaMuerte’sMexicancontextandthatof
Prower’sintendedreadership. TheconceptofdeathhasbeenidentifiedascentraltoMexicancultural
identityasevincedbytheiconicCatrinaCalaveraandDiadelosMuertoscelebrations,andChesnut
notesthatSantaMuerteis“asfamiliartoMexicansasdeathitself”[5,34]. Moreover,thelethaldanger
faceddailybymanyMexicancitizensonbothsidesofthedrugwarisanimportantcontributingfactor
totheSkeletonSaint’spopularity([5],pp. 96–120;[6]). Withnewhomicidesmakingheadlinesdaily,
contemporaryMexicansocietycanhardlybesaidtoshelteritscitizensfromdeath. Similarly,astudy
ofSantaMuertistatransgendersexworkersinGuadalajaraandSanFranciscoindicatedthesedevotees’
experienceoflivingunderthedailythreatofdeadlyhomophobicandtransphobicviolencestrengthen
theirfaithandsenseofaffinityinSantaMuerte[35]. Thus,thisstatementonPrower’spartappearsto
beaveryclearreflectionofthefactthathisbookisintendedtointroducethecultofSantaMuertetoa
differentaudiencethanthatofurban,working-classMexico.
4.2. NegotiatingCatholicism
Ali, DiGregorio, and Prower relate to Catholicism in a different way from large parts of the
theSantaMuertecultonbothsidesoftheUS-Mexicanborder. MexicandevoteesofSantaMuerte
existinaculturallyCatholiccontext,andwerelikelyraisedCatholicwhethertheyarepracticingor
17 Seee.g., Urban, MagiaSexualis, 2006[4]; Hedenborg-White, “ToHimtheWingedSecretFlame, ToHertheStooping
Starlight.”[8]
18 Cf.Hanegraaff,NewAgeReligionandWesternCulture,1996([1],pp.88,152–54);Urban,MagiaSexualis,2006([4],pp.55–80,
109–39,162–222).Genderpolarityisnotuncontroversialinmodernoccultism,andhasbeenchallengedonthegroundsof
heteronormativityandgenderessentialismbyanumberofimportantproponentsandmovements.Seee.g.,([4],pp.222–54);
Effertz,Priest/ess[29];Lupa,“TheFemaleKinkMagician”[30];Kaldera,Hermaphrodeities[31];Faerywolf,“TheQueerCraft:
RethinkingMagickalPolarity.”[32].
Religions2017,8,1 10of14
not([5],p.22). Moreover,ChesnutnotesthatmostdevoteesoftheSkeletonSainthehasencountered
viewtheirdevotiontoheras“complementarytotheirCatholicfaithorevenapartofit”([5],p.115).
It is thus unsurprising that Hispanophone spellbooks on Santa Muerte contain few examples of
Catholicismbeingexplicitlyrejected.19 However,theabovementionedoccultauthorsoperatewithin
thediscursivecontextofcontemporary,Anglo-Americanoccultism,inwhichChristianityhasavery
differentpositionthaninworkingclassMexico. Hanegraaffnotesthattheemergenceofoccultism,
especiallyintheAnglophoneworld,drewstronglyonan“anti-Christianmythographicaltradition”
originatingintheEnlightenment([13],p. 233). Aprominentexampleofthiswasthesympathyforthe
Devilamongofanumberofprominenteighteenthcenturyintellectuals,whobuiltonatraditionof
counter-readingJohnMilton’sParadiseLost20. Whilenotallwereanti-Christian,allexpressedstrongly
anti-clericalviews,positingLuciferasanintellectualandspiritualidealrepresentingliberty,equality,
science,andcriticalthinking[36,37]. Thewritingsoftheseintellectualsprovidedaculturalfoundation
for the later evolution of organized, religious Satanism, exemplified by Anton LaVey’s Church of
Satanin1966[37]. Severalothernotable20thcenturyoccultistsincludingGeraldGardner,Aleister
Crowley,andJuliusEvolawereexplicitlyanti-Christianity,althoughfordifferentreasons. Whilethere
arebranchesofmodernesotericismthatbuildonheterodoxinterpretationsofChristiansymbolism
anddoctrine,noneofthethreeoccultauthorswhoseworkswehaveanalyzedarespeakinginthis
context. As a case in point, all three seemingly feel a need to address and negotiate the presence
of folk-Catholicism in the cult of Santa Muerte. While they employ different strategies for doing
so,thisindicatesanawarenessofthepotentialdifficultiesofintegratingChristiancontentintothe
contemporaryoccultmilieu.
Indifferentways,thethreebooksstudiedinthisarticlehighlightacognitivedissonancefacing
occultistinterpretersofSantaMuerte,namely,thatofintegratingafolksaintwhoseMexicancultis
steepedinCatholiccustomandsymbolismintoaculturalmilieuthatis,atbest,highlyambivalent
towardsChristianity. diGregorio,Ali,andProweralladdressandnegotiatethisdissonanceindifferent
ways, bypresentingvariousexplanationsoftheCatholicstructureofmanyculticpracticeslinked
to Santa Muerte. By integrating Santa Muerte among other pagan deities, drawing explicitly on
symbolism and beliefs derived from modern occultism, and de-emphasizing the importance of
Catholicisminhercult,AlianddiGregoriopresenttheclearestexamplesofattemptingtointegrate
SantaMuerteintoaneclecticnon-Christianoccultcontext. Whethertheyaresuccessfulincraftingan
imageofSantaMuertethatiscompellingtooccultistreadersremainstobeseen.However,theirvarious
strategiesofnegotiationillustratethatvariousdegreesoftranslationareinevitablyinvolvedwhen
religioussymbolsareimportedfromonecontextintoanother.
4.3. SeekingTradition
Cultural and socioeconomic class difference is an integral factor in shaping the transmission
of Santa Muerte into the Anglo-American occult milieu. Just as the living conditions of her
overwhelminglyworking-class,Mexicandevoteesshapestheirdevotionalpracticesandrelationships
withthesaint,theparticularconditionsofcontemporaryoccultismaffectthewaysinwhichoccultists
relatetoSantaMuerte.
SantaMuerte’sintroductionintotheoccultmilieuwaspartlyenabledbythelatemodernmedia
landscape. Since her cult went fully public in Mexico in 2002, Santa Muerte has made cameo
appearances in the Oliver Stone film Savages (2012) as well as a number of TV shows including
BreakingBad,TrueBlood,Dexter,TrueDetective,andAshvs. EvilDead. Asidefromthefinalexample,
19 Anotableexceptionisabookletbeginningwithtenstatementscalled“LosDiezEstadosLaSantaMuerte”,thefirstnineof
whichhavebeencopiedverbatimfromAntonLavey’sSatanicBible,inwhichtheDevil’snameisreplacedwiththatofSanta
Muerte.LaVey,TheSatanicBible,25,Jimenez,LaBibliadeLaSantaMuerte.
20 NotableexamplesofthistrendincludeWilliamBlake,MaryWollstonecraft,PercyByssheShelley,andLordByroninBritain,
andAnatoleFranceandJulesMicheletinFrance.