The Roman Army: The Civil Wars 88–31 BC

100 Pages·2008·35.829 MB·English

by  Nic Fields, Duncan Anderson

The Roman Army:
the Civil Wars 88-31 BC
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
NIC FIELDSstarted hiscareerasabiochemistbeforejoiningtheRoyal
Marines.Having leftthemilitary,hewentbackto universityand completeda
BAand PhDinAncientHistoryattheUniversityofNewcastle.HewasAssistant
Directoratthe British SchoolatAthens,Greece,andthen alecturerinAncient
HistoryattheUniversityofEdinburgh.Nicisnowafreelanceauthorand
researcherbased in south-westFrance.
Battle Orders • 34
The Roman Army:
the Civil Wars 88-31 BC
Nic Fields
Consultant editor Dr Duncan Anderson • Series editors Marcus Cowperand Nikolai Bogdanovic
FirstpublishedinGreatBritainin2008byOspreyPublishing, Key to first names (praenomeninis)
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Abbreviations
AC1PcataloguerecordforthisbookisavailablefromtheBritishLibrary
ISBN:978 I846032622 AE L'Anneet.pigraphique (Paris, /888-)
BMC,R.Rep. H.A.Grueber,Coinsofthe Roman Republicinthe
PagelayoutbyBounford.com,Cambridge,UK BritishMuseum (London, 1910,repro /970)
MapsbyBounford.com,Cambridge,UK Crawford M.H.Crawford,Roman RepublicanCoinage,2vol.
IndexbySandraShotter
(Cambridge, 1974)
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Keytomilitarysymbols
xxxx xxx X III
0 0 0 0
Proconsular Consular Legio Cohors
army army
I ••
0 0 cgJ ~
Centuria Contubernium Infantry Cavalry
O(-l O(+l
Unitwithpart Reinforced
detached unit
KeytounIitZidenItification
Unit Parent
identifier unit
Commander
Contents
Introduction 4
Roman military organization 6
Legion •Auxiliaries •Cavalry
Weapons and equipment 18
Legionaries •Auxiliaries •Cavalry
Command and control 28
Legion command •Centuriate•Juniorofficers •Commandand control inaction
The Roman Army in battle 36
Romantactical doctrineand practice • Legion •Auxiliaries •Cavalry
Engineering 43
Marchingand permanentcamps • Roads and bridges •Siegeworks
The civil wars 50
Pharsalus,Pompeyversus Caesar•Thapsus,the republican sunset
Philippi,thefinal bout•Actium,Antoniusversus Octavianus
Poets, propaganda and absolute power 80
Chronology 82
Ancient authors 85
Appian (b.AD95) •Cassius Dio (b.AD 164)• Plutarch (c.AD46-120) •Suetonius (b.c.AD 70)
The Altar of Domitius Ahenobarbus 89
Bibliography 90
Glossary 92
Legionary titles 94
Index 95
3
Introduction
War defined ancient Rome, so much so that no social or political aspect was
divorced from events on the field ofbattle. Rome's expansion in the 3rd and
2nd centuries Be from an Italian city-state to the superpower of the
Mediterranean world had been under its traditional form ofgovernment. Yet
the overseas conquests led to a change in mentalityamongthe ruling elite.
The orator and politician Cicero, a contemporary of Caesar, reckons 'there
are two skills that can raise men to the highest level ofdignitas (honour): one
is that ofgeneral, the secondthat ofa good orator' (Pro Murena 30). Yetitwas
serviceinthe armyratherthan a careerinthe courts, Cicero continues, which
conferredthegreatestpersonalstatus. Cicero, amannotknownforhismilitary
inclinations, appreciatedtheharshrealitythattherewasmoreglorytobewon
byextendingtheempirethanbyadministeringit. Moreover, succeedinginthe
arena of political life was an expensive business, but a foreign war offered
unparalleledopportunitiesforwinninggloryandforenrichingselfandstateat
one and the same time.
LegionariesontheAltarof
DomitiusAhenobarbus (Paris,
Museedu Louvre,Ma975).For
manyrecruits enlistmentinthe
armywasan attractiveoption,
promisingadequatefood and
shelter,acash incomeand ahope
ofsomethingmore both during
theirserviceand ontheirformal
retirement.(Fields-Carre
4 Collection)
Yetthe spectacularsums ofwealthbroughtinto Rome byits conquests and
the opportunitiesandtemptationsofferedbyits empire putintolerable strains
on the political and social system that had been adequate for a modest city
state. As a result senatorial solidarity, which had made Rome a superpower,
gave way to individualism. Increasingly, generals who had achieved stunning
military successes began to act on the basis of self-interest, keen as they were
on acquiring great personal power. The repercussions of this are not hard to
guess. Internal rivalries began to emerge, leading to a power struggle thatwas
fought out during the 1st century Be. Sulla and Marius, Pompey and Caesar,
Marcus Antonius and Octavianus, these were to be the leading players in the
civilwars ofthe dying Republic.
It was the first of these republican warlords who was the first to march on
Romewithhisseasonedveterans,whilethelastwouldemergevictoriousasthe
first Roman emperor, Augustus. Yet itwas with Marius that the precedentwas
setwherebysoldiers- nowvolunteers invariablyfrom the lowest social class
looked to their own generals rather than the state for the rewards of service,
particularly the all-important provision on retirement. Simultaneously, the
generals lookedto their own soldiers to supportthem in politics.
When Sullawas on the point ofreturning to Italy to march on Rome for a
second time, he bound his troops to him by a personal oath, 'promising to
standbyhimandtodonodamageinItalyexceptbyhisorders' (PlutarchSulla
27.4). The insistence ofthe republican military oath, the sacramentum, 'never
to leavetheranksbecauseoffear orto run away' (Livy22.38.4) nowtookona
more sinister overtone as its ancestral formula was neutered by various
warlordstosuittheirprivatepoliticalplans. InthiswaySulla'sopponentCinna
invoked a personal sacramentum on losing his consular authority. At once the
militarytribunes 'swore the military oath to him, and each administered it to
hisownsoldiers' (AppianBellumcivilia 1.66). InIberia, some 35yearslater, the
Pompeian general M. Petreius, sensing that many ofhis soldiers were keen to
gooverto Caesar, 'extractedanoathfrom themthattheywouldnotdesertthe
army and its leader [Le. Pompey] and that theywould not act individually in
their own interests, abandoning the others' (Caesar Bellum civile 1.76.2).
Petreius bound himself with the oath first and compelled his fellow
commander L. Afranius to follow suit, then the military tribunes and
centurions, and last the soldiers century by century. Again the traditional
sacramentum was adapted to suit the immediate crisis, thereby expressing the
personalloyaltybetween general and soldiers.
5
Roman military
organization
CaiusMarius, who held anunprecedented series ofconsulshipsduringthelast
decadeofthe 2ndcenturyBe, andwho defeatedIugurthaofNumidiaandlater
the much more serious threat to Italy from migrating Germanic tribes, the
CimbriandtheTeutones, hasoftenbeencreditedwithtakingthedecisivesteps
that laid the basis for the professional standing army ofthe Principate. Rome
was now the dominant power in the Mediterranean basin and the annual
levyingofwhatwas in effect apart-time citizen militiawas incompatiblewith
the running and maintenance of a world empire. Moreover, decades of war
overseashadturnedoutthousandsoftrainedsoldiersandmanyofthemwould
have found themselves strangers to civilian life after their years of service
abroad. The army had been their life and Marius called them back home. But
besides these time-expired veterans, Marius also enrolled another more
numerous kind ofvolunteer: the men with nothing.
Those Roman citizenswho did notbelongto the five Servianclasses, that
is, those who could not declare to the censors the minimum census
qualification of owning property above the value of 11,000 asses for
Soldiers no longerprovided their
own equipment,instead beingissued
with standardweapons,armourand
clothingbythestate.Thedifferences
betweenthevarious property
classes inthe legionvanished,as did
velitesand equites.All legionaries
were nowheavyinfantry,armed
alikewith scutum,pi/umandgladius.
6 (Fields-Carre Collection)
enrolment in Class V, were excluded from military service. Lacking the
means to provide themselves arms, these citizens were listed in the census
simplyasthecapitecensi, the 'headcount'. However, Mariuswasnotcontent
to supplementhis armyfor theAfricancampaignbyonlydrawingupon 'the
bravest soldiers from the Latin towns' (Sallust Bellum Iugurthinum 84.2).
Thus ofall the reforms attributed to Marius, the opening ofthe ranks to the
capite censi in 107 Be has obviously attracted the most attention, and the
unanimous disapproval of ancient writers (Sallust Bellum Iugurthinum 86.2,
Plutarch Marius 9.1, Florus 1.36.13). And so Marius, a novus homo from a
when hekilledan enemywarriorin Ambrones lefttheircampto helptheir
singlecombat- and infull viewofScipio comradesatthewater's edge,andsome
Aemilianus.Foraman ofrelatively contingentsofsociiand Romanswent
humbleorigins itmusthave lookedas downthe hillto meetthem asthey
ifthefuture belongedto him,unless his splashedacrossthestream.Plutarch says
rivals devoured himfirst. (Morius 20.1) thattheAmbronessuffered
Mariusturned outto bean able asignificantdefeat,buthe mayhave
commanderwho,though lackingthe exaggeratedasthe largerand decisive
brilliance ofCaesar,understood the engagementwasfoughttwo days later.
basic requirementsfor agood army Thisscuffle,however,meantthe
weretraining,discipline and leadership. Romanswere unableto completetheir
When,for instance,he conditioned his fortifications before nightfall.Theystill
armyto meetthe Germanictribes heldthe heightswherethe half-finished
therewere long route marches,each camplay,andtheenemyhad retired,but
man carrying hisgearand preparing his thesecuritythesoldierswere
own meals.Moreacommon soldier accustomedto- and uponwhichthe
than an aristocraticgeneral,inAfrica he commanderreliedto keep his men
had'won the affection ofthe soldiers rested and confident- was notthere.
byshowinghe could liveas hard asthey Fortunatelyfor Mariustherewas no
did and endureas much' (Plutarch attackduringthe night.Theenemy
Morius7.5). evidentlyhad had enoughfightingduring
Asageneral Marius relied mainlyon theengagementatthestream,andthey
surpriseand alwaysshowedareluctance spentthe nextdayorderingthemselves
to engageinatraditional,set-piecefight. forabattle.Mariusdid likewise,puttinga
CaiusMarius(157-86 Be) Hepreferredtodeterminethetimeand numberofcohorts,perhapsfive orsix
In manywaysthespectacularcareerof placeandwould notbe hurried.Such theyaresaidto have numbered 3,000
Mariuswasto provideamodelforthe was hisvictoryatAquaeSextiae(Aix-en men inall- underalegateofhis,M.
greatwarlordsofthe lastdecadesofthe Provence).HavingdoggedtheTeutones Claudius Marcellus,and ordered himto
Republic.Hecamefrom the local andAmbronessincetheycrossedthe slip intoawooded areanearbyand hold
aristocracy,dominobiles,ofthecentral Rhone,Marius moved intothevicinity himselfthroughthe nightin preparation
Italian hill-town ofArpinum (Arpino), ofthe Roman colony.Atthe endofthe for battlethefollowingday.
which had received Roman citizenship day's march,Marius begantoestablisha The balanceofthearmy Marius led
only31 years beforehis birth.In 107BC, marchingcampon highground outthe nextdayonthe heightbefore
justshyofhis50th birthday,Marius overlookingastream.Followingthe thecamp,sendinghis cavalryoutahead
becameconsul,which provedtothefirst usual orderofthings,the legionaries to skirmish withtheenemyand provoke
ofseven,morethananyman had held would have been doingthe manualwork them intoaction.We do notknowthe
before.Itwas notsimplythe number underthedirection oftheircenturions disposition ofthe legionaries,though itis
thatwas unprecedented,butthe nature, whiletheauxiliariesand cavalrystood assumedthattheywereformed up in
forfivewereto be held inconsecutive readytodriveoffanyattack. theconventionaltriplexocies.The
years between 104BCand 100BC,whilst Asthesoldiers laboured,servantsand TeutonesandAmbronesattacked uphill,
theseventh hewastoseize,as hehad slaveswentdown slopetothestreamto were metand contained,and driven
taken Romeitself,witharmedforce in fetch water.Theywentarmed ofcourse, slowlydowntheslopebythe legionaries
86BC withswordswith axesandwith spears, andthen,whilefullyengaged,were
Mariuswas bynatureasoldier;much sincetheGermaniccamp layjustacross struckfrom behind byMarcellus'
in his laterlifewouldshowit,and he had thestreamand someoftheenemywere cohorts emergingfrom thewoods.
began his longmilitarycareerasa down atthewaterthemselves.Itmay Theenemy,caughtbetweentwoforces,
cavalryofficer,servingwith distinction nothavebeen unusualforopponents dissolved andwere utterlydefeated.
underP.CorneliusScipioAemilianus (cos. to meeteach otherundersuch TheTeutonesandtheAmbroneswere
147BC,cos.II 134BC),thegreatest circumstances,each sidetacitlyputting finished asathreatto Rome.
Roman ofhisgeneration,inthe upwiththeotherso longastheycould
NumantineWar(134-132 BC).Marius keepapart;howeversometimesafight
wastoenhance his reputationthere would eruptas happenedthis day.The
7
Replica Roman standardson display family that had never before held the consulship, stands accused of paving
inthe Romische-Germanische the way for the so-called lawless, greedy soldiery whose activities were
Zentralmuseum,Mainz.Thesewere thought to have contributed largely to the fall of the Republic a few
the painstakingworkofDrLudwig generations later.
Lindenschmidt,a 19th-century
YetweshouldnotlosesightofthefactthatMariuswasnotthefirsttoenrol
pioneerin Roman experimental
the capitecensi. Attimes ofextreme crisis inthe pastthe Senatehadimpressed
archaeology.From leftto right,an
aquila,avexillum andtwosigna,all of them, along with convicts and slaves, for service as legionaries. In the
which arefirmly based on sculptural aftermath of the crushing defeats at the Trebbia (218 BC), Lake Trasimene
reliefsand archaeologicalfinds. (217 BC) and Cannae (216 BC), the Senate made the first of a number of
(AncientArt&Architecture) alterations to the Servianconstitution. In the dark days following Cannae, for
instance, two legions were enlisted from slave-volunteers (Livy 22.57.11,
23.32.1). Mariuswas merelycarryingone stagefurther aprocessvisible during
the 2nd centuryBC, bywhich the prescribed property qualification for service
in the army was eroded and became less meaningful. Now the only real
prerequisiteswere Roman citizenship and awillingness to go soldiering.
Noticeably the ancient sources, unlike modern commentators, do not say
that Marius swept away the qualification, or changed the law on eligibility.
On the contrary, he merelyappealed to the capitecensifor volunteers, whom
he could equip from state funds under the legislation drawn up by Caius
Gracchus in 123 BC, by which the state was responsible for equipping the
soldier fighting in its defence (Plutarch Caius Gracchus 5.1). Even before
8 Gracchus' lex militaria, there had been a progressive debasement of the