The Role and Meaning of Religious Architecture in the Umayyad State: Secondary Mosques

17 Pages·2017·3.96 MB·English

by  Carmen González Gutiérrez

arts
Article
The Role and Meaning of Religious Architecture in
the Umayyad State: Secondary Mosques
CarmenGonzálezGutiérrez
“Sísifo”ResearchGroup(P.A.I.HUM-236),UniversityofCórdoba,14071Córdoba,Spain;
[email protected]
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:1)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)(cid:8)(cid:1)
(cid:1)(cid:2)(cid:3)(cid:4)(cid:5)(cid:6)(cid:7)
Received:18June2018;Accepted:20September2018;Published:9October2018
Abstract: Historiographyandarchaeologicalresearchhavetraditionallydefinedmosquesmainly
asreligiousspacesorplacestopray,withoutfurtherspecifications. Thissimplificationhasusually
dominatedtheanalysesofmosques,whileotherusesorfunctionalaspectsofthesebuildingswere
put aside. The scarcity of material information available for years to approach these buildings,
together with the dominance of the more monumental examples—such as the great mosque of
Córdoba—provokedthatanalysesaboutothermoremodestmosqueswerescarceoralmostinexistent.
However,inrecentdecades,theproliferationofrealestatebuildingactivitieshasledtotherecovery
ofmanynewandfresharchaeologicaldatarelatedtoothermosquesdifferentfromtheFridayones.
Specifically, in Córdoba, the volume of information recovered has been enormous, and concerns
notonlymosquesasisolatedbuildings,butalsotheirurbanenvironments,constructionprocesses,
and evolution along the centuries. Therefore, in this paper, we offer a summarized overview of
thestateoftheartsaboutresearchonmosquesinal-Andalus,presentingthemainproblemsand
limitationsofthetopicuntilnow,andalsothecaseofCórdobaandthemainresultsachievedthereas
areferenceforfurtheractionstobeundertakenintherestoftheterritory.
Keywords: Córdoba; Madinat Qurtuba; al-Andalus; mosques; religious architecture; Islamic
urbanism;urbanlandscape
1. Introduction: Mosques,BeyondReligion
ReligionisoneofthemainmodelersofIslamiccivilizationandMuslimlifestyles. Theneedto
performdailyprayersexplainswhymosques,asheartsofthequotidianreligiousactivity,areusually
preeminentelementsinthearrangementofsettlementsandcities. Notonlyweretheytheplaceforthe
congregationofbelievers,butalsomeansofmonumentaldisplayforthebenefitofrulingauthorities.
Togetherwiththis,thenon-confessionalusethattheyreceivedfromtheinhabitantsalsoconstitutedan
importantpartfortheirraisond’être.
Such a concurrence of factors has been frequently derived in the affirmation that there is no
Islamiccitywithoutmosques. However,whereasthenotionofan‘Islamiccity’hasbeenrethought
and reformulated in recent decades (see, for instance, Abu Lughod 1987; Behrens-Abouseif2000;
Neglia2008;orBrogiolo2011),theterm‘mosque’hasremainedunreviewed. Mudunarenolonger
conceived as non-planned sites, produced by a chaotic society, but as organic living realities that
changeaccordingtotheneedsandwaysoflifeofthosewhoinhabitandbuildthem. Inotherwords,
theMuslimcityisnotdefinedthroughitsmorphologicalcharacteristicsanymore,butthroughthe
functionsitperformsalongtime.
In stark contrast, mosques have barely been explained beyond their formal aspects. This is
quitecontradictory,giventhattheQuranreferstoa‘mosque’astheplaceforprayerfortheIslamic
community,withoutstipulatingspecificarchitecturalcharacteristicsapartfromtheorientationtowards
Mecca(TheQuran,II,144–150;Grabar1979,p. 119). Infact,fromtheverybeginningoftheIslamic
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expansion,thearchitecturalformsofthesebuildingsweremultipliedaccordingtodiversebuilding
traditionsandtothepersonalitiesofthedifferentregions. Becauseofthisformalvariety,therehave
beenseveralintentstoclassifyexistingmosquesincertaintypologicalgroups.
OneclassificationissuggestedinTheEncyclopediaoftheQuran,wheremosquesarearranged
accordingtotheirmorphologicalcharacteristicsandgeographicallocations.1 TheEncyclopediaof
Islamalsosystematizesmosques,butconsidersthereasonsthatpromotedtheirfoundation.2 Allof
these criteria allow a primary organization of mosques despite their strong architectural plurality,
but this current overview is insufficient to understand all their functions in urban scenarios or in
Muslimideology.3 Thepanoramabecomesmorecomplexwhenitcomestotheexplanationofwhata
mosqueisbeyonditsmaterialform. TheEncyclopediaofIslam(Bosworth2010)defines“mosque”
astheplacewhereMuslimsprostrateduringthereligiousservice. Thiscomesfromtheetymological
originofthewordmosque—inArabicmasyˆidormasgid,pluralmasa¯yˆid—whichderivesfromtheverb
sadjada,thatistosay,toprostrate. Thus,‘mosque’alludestotheritualfollowedbythefaithfulwhen
theyperformtheprayer:standinginparallelrows,believersexecuteaseriesofpositionsthatculminate
inthetotalprostrationasasymbolofsubmissiontoAllah. Thisexplanation4ismainlyfocusingon
thereligiousfacetofmosquesanddefiningthemasaplaceforworship,butdisregardsmanyothers
aspects. IthasbeenalsostatedthatatleastatthebeginningoftheIslamicconquestmosqueswere
builtasterritoriallandmarksaswell,locatedinstrategicspotswheretheycouldshowthepresence
oftheIslamintheconqueredlands(Calvo2014, p. 28). Mosquesweredesignedtorepresentand
maintainthememoryofcertainhistoricalepisodesorpeopletoo,andtheyweresometimeslinkedto
thepoliciesofArabizationandIslamizationofthenewterritories(Calvo2014,p. 41).
Togetherwiththis,atleastduringthemedievalcenturies,rulersusedmasa¯yˆidaspropagandistic
scenarios to launch certain messages. These large architectural works served to establish signs of
politicallegitimacytoo,throughcarefullydesignedarchitecturalanddecorativeprograms. Firstin
theSyrianarea,theappearanceofmosqueswasprogressivelyregularizedthrougha“directimperial
patronage” (Ettinghausen and Grabar 1987, p. 54). Later, similar processes will be undertaken in
al-Andalus (Almagro 2001; Juez 1999, pp. 86–ff.). In this region, the great mosque of Córdoba
is considered the best example of monumental religious architecture to the service of political
legitimizationandpropaganda.
Apartfromtheseofficialintentions,mosqueswerealsomodeledbythenormalanddailyuse
thattheinhabitantsofthecitiesgavetothem. Regardingthis,itiswelldocumentedthat,atleastin
al-Andalus,theattendanceofMuslimstomosqueswasnotonlytoperformthedailyprayersthere,
butalsotosolveotherissues,suchasthoserelatedtojusticeorneighborhoodconflicts(seeJuez1999,
pp. 116–17;Peláez2000;Al-Jusani2005). Thissocialinteractionturnedmosquesintoastageinwhich
thepretensionsofthepowerandthehabitsofthedailylifeconcurred.
2. Masa¯yˆidinAl-Andalus: FridayMosquesandOtherExamples
TheEncyclopediaofIslampointsoutthatmosqueswhichhousedthenoonFridayprayercould
receive the rank of major or “Friday mosques” (Bosworth 2010, pp. 325–26). Conversely to daily
prayers,whichcouldbepracticedalmostanywhere(Hillenbrand1994,p. 31),Fridayprayerinthe
1 ThisEncyclopedia(Mcauliffe2001–2006)classifiesmosquesconcerningtheirarchitectural,morphological,andgeographical
features(seereviewat(GonzálezGutiérrez2016a,pp.56–57)).Thisphysicalorderinghasalsobeenfollowed,correctedand
modifiedbyauthorssuchasVogt-Göknil(1975);Dickie(1985);FrishmanandKhan(1994);Souto(2004);orBloom(1993),
amongothers.
2 SummarizedatGonzálezGutiérrez2016a,pp.57–58.
3 Further discussion about this, especially regarding al-Andalus’ circumstances, has already been published (see
GonzálezGutiérrez2015).
4 Thisisthemostwidespreadanacceptedexplanationfortheterm‘mosque’.Ithasbeenassumedandexpandedbymany
otherauthors(Golvin1960;Kuban1974;Grabar1979,2004;Souto2004;Longhurst2012a,p. 4;2012b,p. 3,etcetera).
However,itisnottheonlyoneavailable,astheIslamicdoctrinealsorecords,sincethetimeoftheProphet,thetermmosque
as“HouseofGod”(baytAlla¯h)(GarcíaSanjuán2002,p.216).
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mosquewasofcompulsoryassistanceforalladultmalebelongingtohighestclasses. Itwasnotonly
a religious duty, but an official instrument through which inhabitants expressed their community
membershipandtheiradhesionandsupporttocertainpoliticalregimes. Thisisthereasonwhymany
mainmosquesbecameaclearsignoftheauthorityandpositionoftherulingdynasty. Inthecase
ofal-Andalus,theUmayyadswerethefirstencouragersoftheIslamicfaith. Sincetheyalsohadthe
needtolegitimatetheircommandingpositionandtomanifesttheirbuildingcapacity,theybecame
the highest promoters of these masa¯yˆid al-Jami’(Juez 1999, p. 86).5 In these buildings, they could
arrange official and political ceremonies, as well as to check adhesion of the umma to the regime
(seeJuez1999;Calvo2014,pp. 62–ff.). Asaconsequence,thesefacilitiesshowedgreatmonumentality
andartisticqualitywhichwereinterpretedbythebelieversasthematerialexpressionoftheunityof
thecommunity,andbythenon-believersasamanifestsignofthehegemonyofIslam.
Their eye-catching and attractive formal characteristics turned mosques, in the opinion of P.
Wheatleyandespeciallybetweenthe7thand10thcenturies,intothemoststrikingstructuresonthe
Islamiccities6(Wheatley2001,p. 231). Becauseofthis,Fridaymosquesinurbanareashaveusually
receivedthemostoftheattentioninresearch,whichhastendedtoleaveotherminorprayerspaces
aside. However,thosemonumentalfeaturesarenotperceptibleinallandalusícasesnowadays,often
due to the frequent transformation of mosques into later churches. The case of Jaén may be very
illustrative. OnlyafterahardarchitecturalstudyinthecurrentIglesiadelaMagdalenaitwaspossible
torecognizetheIslamicmosquethatremainsunderneath(firstBerges(2007),recentlyreviewedby
Rütenik (2017, pp. 249–57). In some other cities, basic data such as the location and fundamental
structureofthemainmosquearestillbeingthesubjectofscientificdiscussion(inGranada,forexample,
(TorresBalbás1945;FernándezPuertas2004);orToledo,whereonlythelocationofitsmainmosqueis
barelyknown).
Inthecasesmentionedabove,readjustmentstotheChristiancultandthecontinueduseproduced
strong modifications in the original structures of these buildings, which are nowadays difficult to
perceive. Nevertheless,insomeothercasesseveralfundamentaltracescanbestillidentifiedinspiteof
theChristianmodifications. Atthisrespect,theFridaymosqueofZaragoza,currentlycalledSeode
SanSalvador,isahighlightedexample. Foralongtime,themosquewasonlyapproachablethrough
writteninformation,andbarelyrecognizedinsomereusedstructures,suchasitsminaret(Souto1989;
Almagro1993). However,theuseoftechniquesrelatedtothearchaeologyofarchitecturehasledto
thedocumentationofotherarchaeologicaltraces,allowingamorecompleteformalandtypological
knowledgeoftheoldmosque(Souto1993a,1993b;HernándezVera2004).
SimilarsituationscanbeobservedinHuesca(Carrero2005);Tudela(GómezMoreno1945),Málaga
(GonzálezSánchez1996),Mértola(TorresBalbás1955;Ewert1973;Macías2006;Macíasetal.2011),
Carmona(Angladaetal.2017;JiménezHernández2018)orSevillasee(Valor1993)or(Cómez1994)
fortheIbnAdabbasmosque,(JiménezSancho2016)fortheAlmohadmosque),whereFridaymosques
areprogressivelybeingdiscoveredorbetterdocumented. Inaddition,inthislastcitytheAlmohad
mosquehasbeenaddressedfromnewviewpoints,inregardtoitsurbaninsertionanditsimpactinthe
nearesturbanfabric(Almagro2007;Arévalo2011;JiménezSancho2016).7
ThevariabilityinthebetterorworseknowledgeofandalusíFridaymosquesbecomesclearer
when it comes to the great mosque of Córdoba. This complex is considered by many scholars
the most emblematic building of those erected in al-Andalus due to its forms, functions and
meanings (Souto2009,p. 9). Its significance, together with its state of conservation, has produced
5 MosquesfromLateIslamicandNasridtimesstillshowedmonumentalityandsplendour.Theneedforanaustereappearance
asasignoftheirpiouspurposesenteredveryoftenincontradictionwiththestrongostentationmanifestedbytherulers
(Juez1999;Longhurst2012a,2012b).
6 Thisworkisfocusedonurbanareas.Forfurtherinformationonruralspaces,see(Calvo2004,2014).
7 However,notallurbanmainmosquesweretransformedintoChristiantemples,sincenotalltheIslamicsettlementshave
surviveduntilpresentdays.Itisthecaseof,forexample,Mad¯ınatal-Zahra¯’(Vallejo2006,2010),wherethedamagecaused
bythecontinuedplunderhasseverelyunderminedthevestigesofitsFridaymosque(Pavón1966).
Arts2018,7,63 4of17
great fascination among researchers and other authors, who have widely written about it. As a
consequence, Córdoba’s mosque has received plenty of attention, materialized in a wide range of
existingbibliographyofdifferentnature.8
Whileresearchhasbeentraditionallyconcentratingmoreontheseprincipalmosques,forwhich
thereisaconsiderableamountofliteratureavailable,lessmonumentaloneshavebarelyappearedinthe
scientificdiscussion. Recenthistoriographyhaspopularizedthenames‘neighborhood’,‘secondary’,
or‘minor’mosquesfortheseoratories,whichwerebuiltallalongthecitiesandwhichdonotseemto
fitproperlyinthetypologiesprovidedbytheEncyclopediaofIslam(seeabove).
Written sources transmit first order information about the juridical and legal details of these
foundations—internalmaintenance,methodsoffinancing,andeconomicsustainability,amongother
aspects—canbestudiedthroughthedocumentsrelatedtoawqa¯f. TheworksbyGarcíaSanjuán(2002)
andCarballeira(2002)haveshednewlightonthispiousinstitution,andonhowthesefoundations
were engaged with the social life of cities’ inhabitants. In this respect, texts reveal how these
smaller mosques were places for justice, social gathering, teaching, for hosting different social
ceremoniesand,evenincertaincases,scenariosforfuneraryactivitiesaswell(seesomeexamplesin
GonzálezGutiérrez2016a,pp. 419–ff.).
Unfortunately,thesetextualdataaretooundetailedtoallowapproachestotheformalaspectand
thefunctionsperformedbythesebuildings. Writtensourcesrarelytransmitenoughinformationabout
theappearanceofthesebuildings,butonlybarementions,withoutdescriptions,relatedtofurther
narrationorotherevents. Inthebestofthecases,someinaccuratecountshavebeenmade.9 Texts’
inaccuracyturnsarchaeologicalinformationintoanindispensablesourcetoreachabetterknowledge
about mosques. Nevertheless, archaeological data may also be hard to process frequently due to
insufficient registration, the poor state of conservation of the remains found, or the difficulties to
identifythemasmosques. Becauseofthis,intheformerurbanterritoryofal-Andalustherearestill
manymosquestobedetected.
Regarding Seville, for instance, it has been conventionally assumed that medieval mosques
playedaveryimportantroleinthearrangementofthelaterChristianparishdistrictsinthecity,even
though there is very little archaeological news of other Islamic religious buildings rather than the
principalmosques(Valor2008). Difficultieswhenitcomestotheidentificationofmosques—which
isnotexclusivefortheSevillianarea—aretoooftenrelatedtotheiralmosttotalremodelingafterthe
Castilianconquest,andtothescarcityofadequateurbanarchaeologicalinterventionstodocument
them. Thefrequentlackofpublicationsderivedfromthefewinterventionsmadeshouldbeaddedto
thisproblem(Valor2008,pp. 142–45).
JerezdelaFronteramaybetakenasanotherexample.ChristiansourceswrittenaftertheConquest
register the existence of 18 mosques in the city—some of them turned into parish churches—not
registered by archaeology until now (Calvo 2014, pp. 308–9)10. Some minor mosques have been
locatedinformercities,currentlyabandoned,suchasinMad¯ınatal-Zahra¯’(Vallejo2009)orinVascos,
Toledo(IzquierdoandPrieto1993–1994). Thereisalsoevidenceofotherreligiousspacesdifferentfrom
Fridaymosqueslocatedincitadelsorpalaces,insteadofinneighborhoods. Thesearethecasesofthe
smallmosquesexcavatedinthecitadelsofVascos(IzquierdoandPrieto1993–1994;Izquierdo1990;
IzquierdoandAres2004), Murcia (Sánchez and García 2007), Badajoz (Valdés 1999), the Aljafería
8 PublicationsonthegreatmosqueofCórdobaarecountless,andofferdifferentapproachesintermsoffocus,depthand
quality.Withoutthewilltobeexhaustive,theworksofTerrasse(1932);Hernández(1975);Stern(1976);Creswell(1979);
Papadopoulo(1977);Grabar(1979)aloneandwithEttinghausenandGrabar(1987);Ewert(1987,1995);Cressier(1984,1985)
orHillenbrand(2010),amongmanyothers,shouldbealwaysregarded.
9 ThereareseveralcountsforCórdoba(seeGonzálezGutiérrez2012,pp.51–ff.)whichreflectanexcessivenumberofmosques
forthecity.Theseexaggerationshavebeeninterpretedastheintenttoshowthegreatmonumentalityofthecitymadeby
chroniclers,aswellastoreflecttheimportancethatmosqueshadforitsimperialimage.
10 The remains of a former mosque were identified at the Alcazaba, but it was not corresponding to a secondary or
neighborhoodmosque,opentothemajorityofthepopulation(Calvo2014,pp.546–51).
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 5 of 17
the cases of the small mosques excavated in the citadels of Vascos (Izquierdo and Prieto 1993–1994;
AIzrqtsu2i0e1r8d,7o, 613990; Izquierdo and Ares 2004), Murcia (Sánchez and García 2007), Badajoz (Valdés 159o9f91)7,
the Aljafería palace in Zaragoza (Borrás and Cabañero 2012; Cabañero 2007), and probably in the
citadel of Merida as well (Féijoo and Alba 2002),11 among others (Calvo 2014, pp. 445–ff.). These
palaceinZaragoza(BorrásandCabañero2012;Cabañero2007),andprobablyinthecitadelofMerida
locations point towards a private or restricted use of these spaces by specific collectives rather than
aswell(FéijooandAlba2002),11amongothers(Calvo2014,pp. 445–ff.). Theselocationspointtowards
by the majority of the population, and it is also confirming the existence of places for prayer different
a private or restricted use of these spaces by specific collectives rather than by the majority of the
from Friday mosques or from neighborhood mosques. The clearest example may be the renowned
population,anditisalsoconfirmingtheexistenceofplacesforprayerdifferentfromFridaymosques
Cristo de la Luz mosque at Toledo (Calvo 1999; Jurado Jiménez 2000; or Romero 2006). Even though
orfromneighborhoodmosques. TheclearestexamplemaybetherenownedCristodelaLuzmosque
it was not strictly located at the Alcázar enclosure, its constructive characteristics point towards a
atToledo(Calvo1999;JuradoJiménez2000;orRomero2006). Eventhoughitwasnotstrictlylocated
possible private use as well.
attheAlcázarenclosure,itsconstructivecharacteristicspointtowardsapossibleprivateuseaswell.
This infrequent discovery of other smaller mosques in al-Andalus urban areas has, fortunately,
Thisinfrequentdiscoveryofothersmallermosquesinal-Andalusurbanareashas,fortunately,
two very important counterpoints. The first of them is Toledo, where many smaller places of prayer
twoveryimportantcounterpoints. ThefirstofthemisToledo,wheremanysmallerplacesofprayer
have been identified so far, exhaustively compiled by A. Romero (2006). In addition, the application
havebeenidentifiedsofar,exhaustivelycompiledbyRomero(2006). Inaddition,theapplicationof
of innovative techniques when analyzing these buildings’ elevations is leading to suggest diachronic
innovativetechniqueswhenanalyzingthesebuildings’elevationsisleadingtosuggestdiachronic
readings of their evolution and, in many cases, subsequent conversion into churches. The main
readings of their evolution and, in many cases, subsequent conversion into churches. The main
example in this regard is the work of T. Rütenik (2008, 2017), who has raised the number of mosques
exampleinthisregardistheworkofRütenik(2008,2017),whohasraisedthenumberofmosques
documented in the city to almost a dozen (see Figure 1).12
documentedinthecitytoalmostadozen(seeFigure1).12

Figure 1. Plan of Toledo with the location of mosques identified in current churches (Used by
Figure 1. Plan of Toledo with the location of mosques identified in current churches (Used by
permissionofT.Rütenik,withmodifications.TheoriginalcanbefoundatRütenik2008,p.30).
permission of T. Rütenik, with modifications. The original can be found at Rütenik 2008, p. 30).
The second one is Córdoba, where, from the end of the 20th century, urban archeology is
The second one is Córdoba, where, from the end of the 20th century, urban archeology is
revealingnumerousarchaeologicalremainsofformersecondarymosques,insertedintoverywealthy
revealing numerous archaeological remains of former secondary mosques, inserted into very wealthy
urbancontexts.
urban contexts.
3. TheCaseStudyofCórdoba: SecondaryMosquesforAl-Andalus
Major archaeological evidence about neighborhood mosques in Córdoba did not arise until

the end of the 1990s. However, and despite the vast shadow casted by the Friday mosque, from
11 This study is also suggesting a possible use of this mosque as a signal tower.
12 However, a study which tries to analyze the role of these mosques in the urban landscape still remains to be
conducted.
11 Thisstudyisalsosuggestingapossibleuseofthismosqueasasignaltower.
12 However,astudywhichtriestoanalyzetheroleofthesemosquesintheurbanlandscapestillremainstobeconducted.
Arts2018,7,63 6of17
the beginning of that same century some researchers began to raise questions about the possible
presenceofothersimplermosquesinthelandscapeofthecity. Wearereferringtoauthorssuchas
Castejón(1929)orLévi-Provençal(1932, etcetera), whoaimedtorecreatetheimageofthecaliphal
cityinthe10thcentury. Todoso,theycombinedtheinformationcontainedinwrittensourceswith
theobservationoftheheritageremainspreservedinthepresentcity.13 Approachestothesurviving
Islamicremainswerescarcebutofgreatvalue. Amongthem,weshouldhighlighttheeffortsmade
byEscribano(Escribano1964–1965),Pavón(1976),Golvin(1979)and,mostofall,Hernández(1975),
whointendedtoapproachthebasicstructureandorganizationofformermosques. Hernándezalso
triedtodistinguishdifferentminarettypologies,whichledhimtosuggestapossibleCordobesian
building school and style tendencies depending on chronological moments. However, further
conclusionsshouldwait,accordingtoHernández,pendingfurtherarchaeologicalevidence.
This state of the arts had to wait until the second half of the 20th century and the first years
of the 2000, when Córdoba experienced a rapid increase of real estate activities which provoked
the progressive and quick exhumation of enormous areas of the Islamic city. These excavations,
mainlydevelopedinareaslocatedoutsidethemedievalwalledenclosure, meantthediscoveryof
archaeologicalevidenceofgreatquantityandquality. Amongothers,multiplevestigesinterpreted
as the remains of mosques were uncovered, which were rapidly compiled into a specific article
(LópezGuerreroandValdivieso2001)14andprogressivelyincorporatedintotheurban-diachronicand
landscapestudiesoftheIslamiccity. AciénandVallejo(1998),Murilloetal. (2004),Casaletal. (2006)
orVaquerizoandMurillo(2010)publishedworkswhichroseawarenessabouttheseelements,often
disregardedwhenspeakingabouttheurbanismandlandscapeofMadinatQurtuba.
The historiographical precedents and the availability of this new archaeological information
motivatedourstudyaboutsecondarymosquesinIslamicCórdoba. Ourmainaimwastotrytogive
answertoawholeseriesofquestionsrelatedtotheappearance,function,andcontinuousevolutionof
thecity: howwerethesemosquesstructuredandorganized,andwhy? Whatwerethetypologies?
HowdidthesemosquesactintheIslamizingworkpromotedbytheUmayyads? Whaturbanand
socialtransformationsarousedintheneighborhoodsinwhichtheywerefounded? etcetera.15
For achieving this, the study of these buildings per se was required first. This involved the
identificationofalltheformermosquesandtheanalysisoftheirstructureandgeneralarrangements,
typologies, and layouts, and their chronological identification as well. Despite the number of
mosquesidentifiedinCórdobaatpresentislesserthanthefigurestransmittedbywrittensources
(seeGonzálezGutiérrez2014,pp. 298–99), up to date scarcely a dozen of complexes have been
identifiedasformersecondarymosques(seeFigure2). Theirstatesofdocumentationandconservation
are,besides,quiteuneven.
13 Amongthem,theyincludedsomeminaretsreusedasbelfriesaftertheChristianconquest,whichstillareapopularpartof
Córdoba’sheritageandculturallandscape(GonzálezGutiérrez2017).
14 Thiscompilationarticlehasbeen,formanyyears,theonlypublicationavailableonthisspecificsubject.However,even
thoughdiscoveriescontinuedtoemergefrom2001onwards,noauthorconsiderednecessarytorevieworenlargethis
contribution.Despitethat,itcontinuedtoraiseawarenessnotonlyabouthowthesebuildingswere,butabouttheirrolein
thecityandtheirimportanceinpeople’slives
15 Firstthroughourmaster’sthesis(GonzálezGutiérrez2012),andfinallywithourdoctoralwork(GonzálezGutiérrez2016a).
Arts2018,7,63 7of17
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 17

FFiigguurree 22.. DDiissppeerrssiioonn mmaapp ooff mmoossqquueess ddooccuummeenntteedd iinn CCóórrddoobbaa tthhrroouugghh aarrcchhaaeeoollooggiiccaall mmeetthhooddoollooggiieess
((CCrreeaatteedd bbyy aauutthhoorr))..
Therearestillstandingremainsofsomeofthesemosques,specificallyseveralminaretswhichwere
There are still standing remains of some of these mosques, specifically several minarets which
transformedintobelltowers. Eventhoughmostofthemhavebeenrecentlyrestoredand,therefore,
were transformed into bell towers. Even though most of them have been recently restored and,
theobservationofthemedievalIslamictechniquesbecomeshard,therearestillsomeexamplesin
therefore, the observation of the medieval Islamic techniques becomes hard, there are still some
whichthetraditionalwall-readingtechniquescanbeapplied. Itisthecaseoftheminaretreusedas
examples in which the traditional wall-reading techniques can be applied. It is the case of the minaret
belltowerinthechurchofSanLorenzo,whosechronologicalevolutionhasbeenreinterpretedthrough
reused as bell tower in the church of San Lorenzo, whose chronological evolution has been
the architectural analysis of its visible faces (González Gutiérrez 2016a, pp. 293–96). Its possible
reinterpreted through the architectural analysis of its visible faces (González Gutiérrez 2016a, pp.
foundationalplaquestatesthattheminaretwaserectedorrefurbishedincaliphaltimes,duringthe
293–96). Its possible foundational plaque states that the minaret was erected or refurbished in caliphal
ruleofal-HakamII.Nevertheless,recentresearchhassuggestedapossibleemiraloriginofthetower
times, during the rule of al-Hakam II. Nevertheless, recent research has suggested a possible emiral
(Marfil2010,p. 54;DeVicente2014,p. 27). Ourrevisiononthesereadings,putinrelationwithother
origin of the tower (Marfil 2010, p. 54; De Vicente 2014, p. 27). Our revision on these readings, put in
andalusíexamples,hasbroughtdifferentresults16thataresummarizedinFigure3.
relation with other andalusí examples, has brought different results16 that are summarized in Figure 3.
These analyses could be only applied in very specific cases, because usually mosques are
These analyses could be only applied in very specific cases, because usually mosques are
documented just partially. There is also a very frequent lack of other architectural or ornamental
documented just partially. There is also a very frequent lack of other architectural or ornamental
material, as well as a shortage of accurate stratigraphic information in many cases. Given these
material, as well as a shortage of accurate stratigraphic information in many cases. Given these
conditions, an approach to their structure and architectural design should be made through new
conditions, an approach to their structure and architectural design should be made through new
methodologicaltechniques. Weproposedametrologicalandmodulationstudytestedinfourmosques
methodological techniques. We proposed a metrological and modulation study tested in four
documented in Córdoba (further methodology and results at (González Gutiérrez 2017)). Results
mosques documented in Córdoba (further methodology and results at (González Gutiérrez 2017)).
obtainedsuggestthepossibleexistenceofabuildingschemeforcaliphalmosques,whichconsisted
Results obtained suggest the possible existence of a building scheme for caliphal mosques, which
ofasquaredprayerhallandaquadrangularpatioonthewestside,equalorslightlybiggerthanthe
consisted of a squared prayer hall and a quadrangular patio on the west side, equal or slightly bigger
haram’ssquare(seeFigure4). Thistypeofmasyˆidroughlyreproducestheschemeestablishedbythe
than the haram’s square (see Figure 4). This type of masŷid roughly reproduces the scheme established
GreatMosqueduringtheCaliphate,whichconsistsoftwoequalsquaresaswell.
by the Great Mosque during the Caliphate, which consists of two equal squares as well.
16 Thedetailedobservationofthefaceoftheminaretinwhichthewindowisstillconservedhasbeenputinrelationwith
thestudyofotherpieces.AshlarsusedinCórdobacanbecomparedwithothersusedtobuildseveralemiralminaretsin
al-Andalus,suchasSanJuanorSantiago,bothinCórdoba,oreventheminaretofIbn‘AdabbasinSevilleorElSalvadorin
Toledo.Otherelementstakenintoaccountarerelatedwiththetypologiesanddimensionsofthewindows.

16 The detailed observation of the face of the minaret in which the window is still conserved has been put in
relation with the study of other pieces. Ashlars used in Córdoba can be compared with others used to build
several emiral minarets in al-Andalus, such as San Juan or Santiago, both in Córdoba, or even the minaret
of Ibn ‘Adabbas in Seville or El Salvador in Toledo. Other elements taken into account are related with the
typologies and dimensions of the windows.
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Figure 3. Drawing of the southern face of San Lorenzo minaret (basis from Marfil 2010, p. 55, lá m. 5,
FFuiigsgeuudrre ew 33i..t hDD hrraaisww piinenrggm ooiffs tsthihoeen ss.o oCuuotthlhoeerrrsnn a frfaaec caeed oodff eSSdaa nbn yLL aoourretehnnozzroo ammcciinonraadrreientt g((b btaoas stiishs effr rdooimmff eMMreanarrtffi iilnl 2t2e00r11p00r,, eppta.. t55i5o5,n, llsáá mgmi.v. 5e5,n ,
uutsosee dtdh wew imitthhi nhhaiirsse ppt)ee.r rTmmoii sstshsiieoo nnle.. fCCt osolilodorers,s aianrretee aradpddrdeeetdad tbiboyyn asau ubtthyho oDrr eaa cVcccoiocrerddniitnneg g( t2to0o 1tth4he,e pdd.i if1fff4ee5rre)e nantnt idinn tMteerrapprrfreieltt aa(t2tii0oo1nn0ss, gpgii.v v5ee5nn) .
ttoTo otth htehe emm riiingnaharrte estti))d.. TeT,o oa tuthhtehe olleerf’fstt sosiiwddene,, iiinnnttteeerrrppprrreeetttaaatttiiiooonnn.s s bbyy DDee VViicceennttee ((22001144,, pp.. 114455)) aanndd MMaarrffiill ((22001100,, pp.. 5555)). .
TToo tthhee rriigghhtt ssiiddee,, aauutthhoorr’’ss oowwnn iinntteerrpprreettaattiioonn..
We have not managed to calculate overall proportions that determined the general dimensions
chosWWenee fhhoaarvv eee anncoohtt mmbuaainnldaaiggneegdd. ttIoot cciasa llccpuurlloaabtteae boolvvee etrrhaalalllt pptrrhooepp oosrirzttiieoo nnossf ttthhhaaetts dde eemtteerormmsqiiunneeedsd tdthheeep gegneendneeerrdaa llm ddoiimmreee nnossniio otnnhsse
ccchhooonssdeenint ifofoonrrse oaeacf hcthhbe ub piulldoilitdnsig nw.gIh.t eiIrste p itrsho ebpyar bowlbeeartbhel aeet rtethhceatetsd itz.h eGeo ivfseitzhnee tshoeafm t ttohhserqseuee e omsfd otehspqeeu fneodsu erdd mempoeosnqreduoeedns atmhneaolcryoezn eoddni t wiothenrese
cocofantldihpiehtipaolln,o sti sto fwh tahhsee r npeoltoth tseb yweewhnee rrpeeo teshsreeibyclt ewe det.ore G seiuvrgeecgnteetsdht .a aGt tiwhvreiednee troh factth htrheornfeooeu- otryfm pthooelso qfgouyue rsb meaynooasnlqyduz eetsdh aewn aleilmryezitcesad l oiwpf hetrahele,
cictaalhilpaipshhanalo,t tei.bt eThehanus ps,no onsste iwbble eeatnroc hpsauoegsosglieobsgltei cataowl iesdvueigrdgecehnsrctoe an i osw- tryiedpqeourl iorceghdyr obtnoeo yc-otoynmpdoptllhoeegteyl i mobuietrys ovonifsdtiho nteh ceaa nllidipm hcialtaste ri.ofTfy htohuuesr ,
cnhaeylwippohatarhcteeh.sa eeTsoh. luosg,i cnaelwev iadrecnhcaeeoislorgeiqcuailr eedvitdoecnocme pisl erteeqouuirrevdis itoon caonmdpclleatrei foyuoru vrihsyiopno tahnedse sc.larify our
hypotheses.

Figure4.CaliphalmosquesinCórdoba.Theirplantconsistsonasquaredprayerroom,followedbyan
Figure 4. Caliphal mosques in Córdoba. Their plant consists on a squared prayer roo m, followed by
alsosquaredcourtyardoftenprovidedwithaminaret(CreatedbyAuthor).
Faingu arleso 4 .s qCuaalirpehda clo murotsyqaureds o ifnt eCnó prdroovbiad.e Tdh weiirt hp laa nmt icnoanrestis (tCs roena tae dsq buya rAeudt hporar)y.e r room, followed by
an also squared courtyard often provided with a minaret (Created by Author).
Arts2018,7,63 9of17
Although the Qu’ran, as we said at the introduction, does not dictate rules that determine
the morphological appearance of masa¯yˆid beyond their orientation towards Mecca, Cordobesian
mosquessoondefinedtheirbasicstructurearoundtwomainparts. Both,prayerhallandcourtyard,
had apparently simple features, but they were also very easy to combine and model. They were,
inshort,highlyelasticandplasticspacesthatcouldbebuiltalmostanywhere. Thetypeofcaliphal
oratoryidentifiedforCórdobaisflexibleanditsdesigncouldbechangedaccordingtotheplotsor
spaceswherethemosqueswouldbebuilt. ThisplasticityisnotconfinedtoCórdoba. Inal-Andalus,
many‘transgressions’ofthiscommonschemearedetected,probablyfavoredbytheabsenceofquranic
guidelines. Thus,wehavemosqueswhosemihrabsarenotinsertedinthecenteroftheqiblas,asinthe
mosqueofCórdoba,orthecitadelofBadajoz;apparentlyrandomgroundplansastheonedrawnby
themosqueincitadelofVascos,orthegeneralizeddifferentialpositionofminarets. Thisadaptation
abilityalsomeansthattherewerenostrictbuildingsrulesthatcanbeextrapolatedforallal-Andalus,
and it is of paramount importance because it turned mosques into one of the most versatile and
multifunctionalbuildingsintheIslamiccity.
Concerningtheirorientations,anddespitebeingthistheonlycharacteristicimposedbytheQuran,
ithasbeenrevealedtobeimpreciseinallcases. Itsaccuracy,whichisbeingsubjectofintensedebate
inhistoriography,didnotseemtohavecapitalrelevanceinCórdoba. Directionsdisplayedbyqiblasin
MadinatQurtubawereunrelatedtotheirchronologies,situationrepeatedintherestofal-Andalus;
nor was a predominating trend over others. Our recent analyses, summarized in Table 1, suggest
thatthedegreeofaccuracyofCordobesianmosques’orientationwasmoreinfluencedbytopography
andbytheinheritedroadnetworks(GonzálezGutiérrez2016a,pp. 454–ff.),asisthecaseincertain
Moroccancities(Bonine1990).
Table 1. Mosques documented in Córdoba: relation among their locations, chronologies and
qiblaorientations.
Location Mosque InitialChronology Orientation
Westernsuburbs RondaOeste Emiral 139◦–140◦
Westernsuburbs Fontanar Caliphal 131◦–132◦
Westernsuburbs CentrodeTransfusión Caliphal 135◦
Westernsuburbs NavesdeFontanar Caliphal 148◦
North Estacióndeautobuses Caliphal 162◦–163◦
North SantaRosa Late-islamic 153◦–154◦
Madinat PuertadeGallegos Emiral 155◦–156◦
Madinat SanJuan Emiral 143◦
Madinat SantaClara Caliphal 125◦–126◦
Madinat FridayMosqueCórdoba Emiral 152◦
Axerquía(easternsuburbs) Santiago Emiral 187◦
Axerquía(easternsuburbs) SanLorenzo Caliphal 129◦
Axerquía(easternsuburbs) Ollerías Late-islamic 114◦
ThedeepeninginthestructuralknowledgeofMad¯ınatQurt.uba’smasa¯yˆidledtoapproachthe
formsandlifestylesofthesocietythatusedthem,aswellastoabetterunderstandingoftheassociated
urban phenomena. The interpretation of information contained in written sources in the light of
archaeologicaldataconfirmsthefunctionalambivalenceofmosques. Farfrombeingplacesexclusively
dedicatedtoprayerandworship,severaltextsspeakofotheractivitiessuchastheadministration
ofjustice,theeducationinspecificdisciplinesorthedevelopmentofsomecommercialoperations.
Allthisturnedthemintotruecentersforsocialmeeting. Theirmaterialrelevancehasbeenconfirmed
throughtheirspatialanalysisfromadiachronicperspective. Aswewillsee,mosquesweregenerally
locatedincloserelationwithhistoricpaths,majorroadsandthegatesofthecity. Sometimes,their
topographicprominencehasalsobeenverified.
Documentarysourcesregisternumerousmosques’foundationsduringtheEmirate. Promoted
by the sovereign and his closest social circle, they played an important role in the emergence and
Arts2018,7,63 10of17
Arts 2018, 7, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 17
development of the earliest neighborhoods.17 Archaeology has not been able to find all these
development of the earliest neighborhoods.17 Archaeology has not been able to find all these
examples,buthasnotedtheexistenceofsomewhoselocationdoesnotseemcasual,buttheresult
examples, but has noted the existence of some whose location does not seem casual, but the result of
of a pre-planned project. We are referring to mosques close to the walled city’s gates, or placed
a pre-planned project. We are referring to mosques close to the walled city’s gates, or placed on entity
on entity roads leading to it. They may respond to the Umayyad government’s desire to provide
roads leading to it. They may respond to the Umayyad government’s desire to provide Madīnat
Mad¯ınatQurtubawiththeneededinfrastructuretodevelopveryspecificwaysoflife,andtocreatea
Qurtuba with the needed infrastructure to develop very specific ways of life, and to create a
determinedlandscape(GonzálezGutiérrez2016b,pp. 280–84). Perhapstheclearestexampleofthe
determined landscape (González Gutiérrez 2016b, pp. 280–84). Perhaps the clearest example of the
IslamizationandproselytismpolicydevelopedbytheUmayyaddynastyisthemosqueofSantiago
Islamization and proselytism policy developed by the Umayyad dynasty is the mosque of Santiago
(seeFigure5). ProbablybuiltattherequestoftheemirHiša¯mIalongaroadwithRomanorigins,
(see Figure 5). Probably built at the request of the emir Hišām I along a road with Roman origins,
nneeaarr tthhee BBāa¯bb aall--ḤH.aaddī¯ıdd,, iitt wwaass llooccaatteedd iinn aa nneeigighhbboorrhhoooodd aallrreeaaddyy ppooppuullaatteedd dduurriinngg tthhee LLaattee AAnnttiiqquuiittyy,,
veryclosetoadhimmicemetery. Thus,itserectionwouldhavebeenconceivedtoencourageurban
very close to a dhimmi cemetery. Thus, its erection would have been conceived to encourage urban
dynamicsandIslamizationinavernaculararea(GonzálezGutiérrez2016b,pp. 280–84).
dynamics and Islamization in a vernacular area (González Gutiérrez 2016b, pp. 280–84).

FFiigguurree 55.. LLooccaattiioonn ooff tthhee mmoossqquuee ccuurrrreennttllyy vviissiibbllee iinn tthhee cchhuurrcchh ooff SSaannttiiaaggoo ((bbllaacckk ssttaarr)) iinn rreellaattiioonn ttoo
tthhee hhiissttoorriiccaall rrooaadd ((iinn bbllaacckk)) aanndd tthhee FFrriiddaayy mmoossqquuee ((rreedd ssttaarr)) ((CCrreeaatteedd bbyy aauutthhoorr oovveerr tthhee ppllaann bbyy
VVaaqquueerriizzoo aanndd MMuurriilllloo 22001100,, pp.. 552299,, fifigg.. 224499.. UUsseedd bbyy tthheeiirr ppeerrmmiissssiioonn))..
TThhee cciitteedd ppaatttteerrnnss wweerree rreessppeecctteedd dduurriinngg tthhee CCaalliipphhaattee,, iinn wwhhiicchh mmoossqquueess ccoonnttiinnuueedd ttoo ooccccuuppyy
aa pprroommiinneenntt ppllaaccee iinn rrooaadd nneettwwoorrkkss aanndd nneeiigghhbboorrhhooooddss.. TThhee uullttiimmaattee eexxpprreessssiioonn ooff tthhee llaatttteerr iiss
ddooccuummeenntteedd ininth ethwe eswteersntesrunb usrubbsu.rHbesr. e,Htheerere, wtheererem woseqruee smbousiqltubeesf obreutihlte rbeesftoorfe thtehein frreasstt ruofc tuthree,
ainsfirtaissttrhuectcuarsee,o afst hite ims tohseq ucaesien oFfo tnhtea nmaros(sqeueeF iing uFroen6taa)n.aPrl a(sceeed Fatigthuerec o6na)fl. uPelnacceedo fatth tehnee cioghnbflourehnocoed o’sf
mthaei nnesitgrhebetosr,htohoisda’sr emaapirno sbtarebelytse, xthpiesr aierenac epdrodbeanbsley terxapffiecrioefnpceedo pdleenasne dtraacfftiicv iotfie pse.oNpelex tatnodi ta,catinvoittiheesr.
mNaesxyˆti dtow iats, baunioltthinert hmeamsŷoids twtoapso gbruaiplth iinca ltlhyep mroomsti nteonptosgproatpohfictahlelys upbruormbi(nmenots qsupeoitn otfh ethCee nsutrboudrbe
T(mraonssqfuusei óinn, tsheee FCiegnutrreo6 dde, (STárnanchsfeuzsMióand, rsiede2 F0i0g5u))r.eI n6da,d (dSiátinocnh,eszo mMeasdercitdo r2s0a0l5re))a.d Iyn eamdedrigtieodnd, usorimnge
tshecetEorms iarlarteeawdyil lembeenrgoewd pdruorvinidge tdhew Eitmhinreawte iwniflrla bster uncotwur pe,roavmidoendg wwihthic hnemwo sinqfureasstcraunctbuered, eatmecotnedg
which mosques can be detected (mosque of Naves de Fontanar, see Figure 6c). Emiral mosques
continued to be active, and even some of them were renovated or enlarged. The continuation of the
1I7slaOmnimzaatniyoonc cpasoiloincsy, thineyitwiaetreede rtehcteend awspiliol ubsef ocuonndtaitniounse.dT hneorewar easm waneylwl.r iIttt ecnatnes tbime odneietseocfteredla,t ifvoers oinftshteaEnmceir,s ionr
theCaliphs,orbymembersbelongingtotheCourt,defrayingtheseconstructions.Thiswasmadetoencouragethesocial
s u p p o r t t o t h e U m a y y a d s ’ r e g i m e a n d toincreasethepoliciesofIslamization.
17 On many occasions, they were erected as pious foundations. There are many written testimonies of relatives
of the Emirs or the Caliphs, or by members belonging to the Court, defraying these constructions. This was
made to encourage the social support to the Umayyads’ regime and to increase the policies of Islamization.