Table Of ContentThe River Is in Us
This page deliberately left blank
The River Is in Us
Fighting Toxics in a Mohawk Community
E LI Z A B ETH H O OV E R
University of Minnesota Press
Minneapolis
London
The University of Minnesota Press gratefully acknowledges the generous
assistance provided for the publication of this book by the Office of the Dean of
the Faculty, Brown University.
Portions of chapter 3 were published as “‘We’re Not Going to Be Guinea Pigs’:
Citizen Science and Environmental Health in a Native American Community,”
Journal of Science Communication 15:01 (A05) 2016. Published online January 21,
2016, and reproduced under a Creative Commons 4.0 by- nc- nd license.
Copyright 2017 by the Regents of the University of Minnesota
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
Published by the University of Minnesota Press
111 Third Avenue South, Suite 290
Minneapolis, MN 55401- 2520
http://www.upress.umn.edu
ISBN 978-1-5179-0303-9 (pb)
ISBN 978-1-5179-0302-2 (hc)
A Cataloging-in-Publication record for this book is available from the Library
of Congress.
Printed in the United States of America on acid- free paper
The University of Minnesota is an equal- opportunity educator and employer.
22 21 20 19 18 17 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Contents
Preface: Cultural Touchstones vii
Abbreviations xvii
Introduction: Environmental Justice, Political Ecology,
and the Three Bodies of a Mohawk Community 1
1. Driving Tour through the Political and Environmental
History of Akwesasne 29
2. Environmental Contamination, Health Studies,
and Mitigation Politics 69
3. “We’re Not Going to Be Guinea Pigs”: Lessons from
Community- Based Participatory Research 123
4. Contamination, Convenience, and a Changing
Food Culture 167
5. PCBs and Thrifty Genes: Broadening the Scope
of Illness Explanation 219
Conclusion. Highlighting Resilience: Individual,
Social, and Political Resurgence and Survivance 253
Acknowledgments 277
Notes 281
Bibliography 315
Index 349
This page deliberately left blank
P R E F A C E
Cultural Touchstones
The Mohawk, or Kanien’kéha:ka (People of the Flint), are part of
the Haudenosaunee (People of the Longhouse) Confederacy of
Six Nations, known to the French as the Iroquois.1 While traditional
Mohawk territory stretches north to south across what is now east-
ern New York State, the contemporary reserves that many Mohawk
people call home lie mostly north of there, including Kahnawà:ke
and Kanesatake in Quebec; Wahta, Tyendinaga, and Six Nations of
the Grand River (which is home to all six nations of Haudenosaunee
peoples) in Ontario; and Akwesasne, which stretches across Ontario,
Quebec, and northern New York. There are also two independent
Mohawk communities in New York State, Kanienkeh and Kanatsio-
hareke.
As the “eastern door” nation of the Haudenosaunee Confeder-
acy, Mohawks were the first to experience the impact of settlers mov-
ing inland from the Atlantic coast. Regardless, members of this nation
have worked creatively against, within, and around the influx of set-
tler influence, maintaining distinctly Indigenous cultures and com-
munities. While Akwesasne has come to embrace a range of religious
traditions (in addition to longhouse adherents, a majority of residents
belong to Catholic or other Christian churches), elements of what is
thought of as traditional Mohawk culture are laid out in well- known
stories and prayers that have structured how Akwesasro:non (people
of Akwesasne) have approached environmental health research, en-
vironmental cleanup, and the preservation of food culture. Among
vii
preface
the stories and prayers that have been particularly influential are
the Haudenosaunee creation story, the Ohen:ton Karihwatehkwen
(Thanksgiving Address), the “one dish, one spoon” story, and the his-
tory of the formation of the Haudenosaunee Confederacy— including
the establishment of the Kaianerekowa (Great Law of Peace).2
Creation Story
The Haudenosaunee creation story, the Tsi Kiontonhwentsison,
demonstrates the importance of women’s bodies not only as the basis
of all human life but also as the source of original foods. Prior to
the coming of Sky Woman, this earthly plane was dark, and covered
with water. Humans lived in the Sky World above, illuminated by a
celestial tree. The Tsi Kiontonhwentsison tells of a pregnant woman,
Sky Woman, Otsitsisohn (Mature Flowers), who fell through a hole
in the Sky World, bringing with her the seeds of strawberries and
tobacco. As she plummeted toward the watery world below, birds
caught her in their wings and laid her on the back of a large turtle.
A number of water creatures attempted to bring up sediment from
far below the water’s surface to support Sky Woman; the muskrat fi-
nally succeeded, but perished in the process. Sky Woman spread this
sediment over the turtle and danced in counterclockwise circles to
enlarge the land surface. She gave birth to a daughter, Iakotsisionite
(She Has a Flower on Her), who matured and was impregnated by
Rawenhontsiowaikon (Turtle Man). Iakotsisionite in turn gave birth
to twin sons, the good- minded right- handed son, Sonkwaiathison
(He Made All of Our Bodies, or Creator), who was born naturally,
and his contrary left- handed brother, Sahwiskeh:ra (Flint), who in-
sisted on making his own entrance through her armpit, killing her.
Sky Woman covered her daughter’s body with a mound of soil, and
from it sprouted tobacco and strawberries, from seeds that she had
grabbed from the celestial tree before her plummet. In addition, her
body produced corn, beans, and squash, the “three sisters” crops that
would sustain the Haudenosaunee and other nations of the North-
east. The two brothers fought constantly, Sonkwaiathison forming
plants, animals, and humans in his image and his brother corrupting
them. Sonkwaiathison gave ceremonies to the people to celebrate all
that they were thankful for, and so they would remain triumphant
over his brother, Sahwiskeh:ra. These ceremonies are still practiced
viii
preface
in Haudenosaunee longhouses, and many are based on the horticul-
tural cycle, celebrating events around maple sugaring, seed planting,
strawberries, string beans, green corn, and the fall harvest. Some
aspects of the ceremonies reflect qualities of the plants being cele-
brated: as Mohawk midwife Katsi Cook described to me, when the
women dance during ceremonies, they “weave like bean runners.”
This horticultural tradition that began in the body of Sky Woman’s
daughter continues to shape Haudenosaunee culture today.
Akwesasne residents still relate the importance of taking part
in the growing cycle to the creation story. One woman, Gina, de-
scribed to me how her father would instruct her in growing, based
on this story:
He’d tell me plant three seeds, one for the birds, one for the
Creator, and one to grow up. And then he’d make me dance
around it and— I guess that was his way of giving thanks or
praying, saying “Please grow” . . . and then as I got older and I
read the creation story and that’s what it says in there that she
danced around and Mother Earth became bigger and bigger.
As a man who plants extensive gardens in Akwesasne explained to
me, “We relate everything to the creation story. Our answers are in
the creation story. So that’s how we plant.”
Imagery from the creation story has been utilized in promoting
both horticultural traditions and the value of women’s bodies. Wa-
kerakatsiteh (Louise McDonald), a Bear Clan mother at Akwesasne,
has begun to host rites of passage ceremonies for the young men and
women, called Ohero:kon.3 These ceremonies bring adolescents to-
gether as a cohort for fasting and participating in sweat lodge and
other ceremonies, as well as for teachings from respected community
members about coming into adulthood, learning necessary skills, and
respecting their bodies. Wakerakatsiteh decided to develop a Mother
Earth garden based on the creation story, so that the girls can under-
stand the importance of planting at the same time they are coming
into an understanding of their own fertility. Each spring, she has the
boys create a mound of dirt in the shape of a woman, gently mov-
ing the dirt while discussing the importance of respecting women’s
bodies. Just as the crops sprang forth from the body of Sky Woman’s
daughter, the young women tuck seeds in around the figure. They
ix
