Table Of ContentThe Representation of Ethiopian Politics in Selected Amharic
Novels: 1930 - 2010.
Anteneh Aweke Ewnetu
Submitted in accordance with the requirements
for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in the subject
Theory of Literature
at the
UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA
(UNISA)
Supervisors:
Professor Johan Coetser
Associate Professor Zerihun Asfaw
July, 2014
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1
Declaration
Student number: 45450145
I declare that “The Representation of Ethiopian Politics in selected Amharic
Novels: 1930 – 2010” is my own work and that all sources that I have used or
quoted have been indicated and acknowledged by means of complete references.
……………………… ……........ ...................
Ewnetu, Anteneh Aweke Signature Date
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Acknowledgements
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my supervisors, Professor Johan Coetser
(UNISA) and Associate Professor Zerihun Asfaw (AAU) for their assistance and insightful
comments that have shaped the thesis in this form.
My deepest gratitude goes to Dr. Tesfaye Dagnew, for his editorial assistance, invaluable
comments, corrections, cooperativeness, moral help and guidance that has won my greatest
admiration. My gratitude also goes to my colleagues, Ato Abdu Mohammed, Dr. Berhanu
Semegne, Dr. Fentahun Ayele, Dr. Seyoum Teshome and Dr. Zewdu Emiru for their editorial
assistance.
Besides, I would like to thank my colleagues and friends, Ashenafi Tesfaye, Aster Mulu,
Aynalem Girma, Hirut Admasu, Dr. Marew Alemu, Mastewal Wubetu, Sefa Meka, Selamawit
Garedew, Solome Zewdalem, Teshome Yimer and Dr. Tesfaye Abera for their encouragement
and moral support.
I further need to acknowledge the Ethiopian Ministry of Education, Bahir Dar University and the
University of South Africa for granting me a scholarship. Without the help of each institution
mentioned, my doctoral study would have never been finalized.
My thanks finally go to my beloved wife, Tigist, my daughters, Betel and Hana, and my mother,
sisters and brothers for their love, patience and encouragement that gave me the strength to
accomplish my study.
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Abstract
Amharic literature has always occupied an important place in the history of the literary traditions of
Ethiopia. Although this literature is believed to be strongly related to the politics of the country, there has
been no study that proves this claim across the different political periods in the country. It would be
ambitious to deal with all the literary genres in this respect. Therefore, delimiting the investigation of the
problem is considered to be useful to filling the knowledge gap. Accordingly, this comparative research
which investigates a representation of Ethiopian politics in selected Amharic novels across three political
periods: 1930 – 2010 was designed.
The objective of the research is to investigate the representation of Ethiopian politics in selected Amharic
novels. The basic research question focuses on how these representations can be explained. An eclectic
theoretical approach (the New Historicism, Bourdieu’s System Theory and the Critical Discourse
Analysis) is employed to understand the representations. The main method of data collection focuses on a
close reading of non-literary and literary texts. A purposive sampling technique is used to select the
sample novels as the technique allows to select those that yield the most relevant data using some criteria.
Based on the criteria set, sixteen novels are selected. The manners in which the political events
represented in the novels are examined using different parameters. The parameters also look into the
methods used in representing the political events and the time in which the events were represented, i.e.
whether they are represented contemporarily, post-contemporarily or before the actual happening of the
event.
Having read the novels critically, the political events that took place in the three respective states are
identified, analyzed and interpreted. The analysis mainly shows that different novels represented the
political events in different manners: lightly or deeply, overtly or covertly, positively or negatively,
contemporaneously or post-contemporaneously. Regarding the ‘how’ of the representations, it is observed
that the critical novels, for instance, Alïwälädïm and Adäfrïs are covert and use symbols, direct and
indirect allusions and other figures of speeches, and other techniques including turn taking, and size of
dialogues to achieve their goals. Some political events are found to be either under-represented or totally
un-represented in the novels. In some cases, same political events are represented differently in different
novels at different times. Some novels that criticized the political events of the governments
contemporaneously have been removed from market, republished in the political period that followed and
exploited by the emerging government for its political end.
There are some patterns observed in the analyses and interpretations of the politics in the novels. One of
the patterns is that sharp criticisms on the events of an earlier political period are usually reflected in
novels published in a new period. The critique novels of the Haileselassie government, for instance,
Maïbäl Yabïyot Wazema, were published during the Darg period, and those that were critical of the Darg
government, for instance, Anguz, were published in the EPRDF period. Another pattern observed is that
there is no novel that praises a past regime, even despite being critical of a contemporary government. No
novel written during the Darg period admired the Haileselassie period; and no novel written during the
EPRDF period appreciated the Darg period.
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There are cases in which novelists who were critical of the contemporary Haileselassie and Darg periods,
for instance, Abe and Bealu, respectively, ended up in detention or just disappeared and their novels,
Alïwälädïm and Oromay, respecitely were banned from being circulated. Unlike the two previous political
periods, the critique novels of the EPRDF period, for instance Dertogada, Ramatohara, and Yäburqa
Zïmïta, have been published, or even republished, several times. Novels written during the Haileselassie
period, such as Alïwälädïm, which were critical of the respective contemporary period, made their
criticism covertly, using probes and imaginary settings and characters, while the critique novels of the
EPRDF period, criticize overtly, and boldly. Generally, it could be concluded that the novels had the
power to reflect history, and show human and class relationships implicitly, through the
interactions of characters, story developments, and plot constructions, and the impact that politics
has on the literature, and the influence of literature on politics.
Key terms: representation, novel, discourse, Ethiopian politics, history, context, censorship, power, New
Historicism, System Theory, Critical Discourse Analysis, ideology, field, habitus, intertextuality, overt,
covert, contemporary, post contemporary.
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Symbols1
The following symbols are used for the transliteration of Ethiopian words
Vowel Symbol Example
1st order ä ²ð’ zäfänä
2nd order u G<K< hulu
3rd order i H>É hid
4th order a ^^ rarra
5th order e u?ƒ bet
6th order ï Ó` ïgïr
7th order o JÉ hod
Consonant Symbol Example
g š gg šäššä
k q qp qoq
† č †[†[ čäräččarä
– ñ ™™ ñoñño
¶ ž Ñ» gäž
¾ y Ã(cid:1)Ã yittay
Ë ĵ ËÓ“ ĵägna
Ö ť Ö× ťäťťa
Ú č' }”ÝÝ tänč'ač'č'a
â p' ä¨<KAe p'awlos
ì s' ììƒ s'äs'ät
TE mwa LTE lamwa
1 The symbols except ĵ, and the examples are taken from Journal of Ethiopian Studies. But, in this research the
Amharic letter “(cid:2)” is represented using the symbol “ĵ” for the researcher could not find the program/symbol used in
the journal of Ethiopian Studies(December, 2000).
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Acronyms
AESM – All Ethiopian Socialist Movement
COPWE – Commission for Organizing the Workers’ Party of Ethiopia
EDU – Ethiopian Democratic Union
ELF – Eritrean Liberation Front
EPLF – Eritrean People Liberation Front
EPRDF – Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Democratic Front
EPRP – Ethiopian People’s Revolutionary Party
EOPRS - Ethiopian Oppressed Peoples’ Revolutionary Struggle
Ič’ïat – Amharic acronym of (Yäityop’iya č’ïqun hïzboč abïyotawi tïgïl (Ethiopian Oppressed
Peoples’ Revolutionary Struggle) in that “I” stands for Ityop’ya, “č’ï” stands for č’ïqun
hïzboč, “a” stands for abïyotawi and “t” stands for tïgïl.
Imaledïh – Amharic acronym of Yäityop’iya Markisist Leninist dïrïjïtoč hïbrät (Union of
Ethiopian Marxist-Leninist Organizations) in that “I” stands for Ityop’yia, “Ma” stands
for Marksist, “le” stands for Leninist, “dï” stands for dïrïjïtoč and “h” stands for hïbrät.
Malerid - Amharic acronym of Marksist-Leninist rivolušïnari dïrïjït (Marxist-Lennist
Revolutionary Organization) in that “Ma” stands for Marksist, “le” stands for Leninist,
“ri” stands for rivolušïnari and “d” stands for dïrïgït.
MOND –Ministry of National Defence
OLF – Oromo Liberation Front
POMOA – Provisional Office for Mass Organizational Affairs
RRC - Relief and Rehabilitation Commission
TPLF – Tigray People’s Liberation Front
WPE – Workers’ Party of Ethiopia
WSLF - Western Somalia Liberation Front
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Contents
Declaration .................................................................................................................................. i
Acknowledgements .................................................................................................................... ii
Abstract ..................................................................................................................................... iii
Symbols ..................................................................................................................................... v
Acronyms .................................................................................................................................. vi
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ x
Chapter One ............................................................................................................................... 1
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1
1.1.Background, the Research Problem and the Rationale ......................................... 1
1.3. Research Questions .............................................................................................. 9
1.4. Objectives ........................................................................................................... 10
1.5. Significance of the Study ................................................................................... 10
1.6. Delimitations and Limitations of the Study ....................................................... 11
1.7. Analytical Framework and Assumptions ........................................................... 12
1. 8. Research Design ................................................................................................ 13
1.8.1. Paradigm and Approach of the Study ............................................................. 13
1.8.2. Selection of Sample Novels ............................................................................ 14
1.8.3. Methods of Data Collection ............................................................................ 16
1.8.4. Methods of Data Analysis ............................................................................... 16
1.8.5. Credibility and Trustworthiness of the Research ............................................ 17
1.9. Structure of the Dissertation ............................................................................... 17
Chapter Two .............................................................................................................................19
Theoretical Concepts and the Context of the Study ....................................................................19
2.1. Theoretical Concepts .......................................................................................... 19
2.1.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 19
2.1.2. Literature, Politics and History ....................................................................... 19
2.1.3. Literature and State ......................................................................................... 23
2.1.4. Literature and Representation of Politics ........................................................ 24
2.1.5. Conceptual Framework of the Study .............................................................. 26
2.1.5.1. New Historicism .......................................................................................... 27
2.1.5.2. Bourdieu’s Literary System Theory............................................................. 30
2.1.5.3. Critical Discourse Analysis .......................................................................... 36
2.2. The Context of the Study .................................................................................... 43
2.2.1. Introduction ..................................................................................................... 43
2.2.2. The Political Contexts of Haileselassie, the Darg and the EPRDF
Governments .............................................................................................. 43
2.2.2.1. The Imperial Period of Haileselassie ........................................................... 43
2.2.2.1.1. The Pre-war Politics : 1930 – 1935........................................................... 44
2.2.2.1.2. The Italian Invasion and the Fight for Freedom ....................................... 46
2.2.2.1.3. The New Spirit after the Return to Freedom ............................................ 47
2.2.2.1.4. The 1960 Coup, the Uprising of Peasants and Student Movements ......... 48
2.2.2.1.5. The 1973 Famine and the 1974 Revolution .............................................. 51
2.2.2.2. The Darg Period ........................................................................................... 52
2.2.2.2.1. Darg, Opposing Parties and the Red Terror .............................................. 52
2.2.2.2.2. The Ethio-Somali War .............................................................................. 54
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2.2.2.2.3. Socialism and the Formation of the Workers’ Party ................................. 54
2.2.2.2.4. The Red Star Multifaceted Revolutionary Campaign ............................... 55
2.2.2.2.5. The Armed Struggle of the EPRDF and its Advance to Addis Ababa ..... 56
2.2.2.2.6. The Change in the World Politics and the Appeal of Mengestu to Israel for
Weapons .................................................................................................... 56
2.2.2.2.7. The Fall of the Darg and the Victory of the EPRDF ................................ 57
2.2.2.3. The EPRDF Period ...................................................................................... 58
2.2.2.3.1. EPRDF and the Politics of Ethnicity ........................................................ 59
2.2.2.3.2. The Eritrean Referendum and the Ethio-Eritrea Border Clash ................. 60
2.2.2.3.3. The 2005 Election and Opponent Political Parties ................................... 61
2.3. Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 63
Chapter Three ............................................................................................................................64
Analyses and Interpretations of the Representations of Political Events of the Pre-war and the
War Periods of Haileselassie (1930-1941) in Selected Amharic Novels ......................................64
3.1. Introduction ........................................................................................................ 64
3.2. Discussion .......................................................................................................... 64
3.2.1. The Pre-war Politics: 1930-1935. ................................................................... 65
3.2.2. Politics Related to the Italian Occupation and the Resistance Movement: 1936
- 1941. ......................................................................................................... 68
3.2.2.1. Preparation for the War and the Invasion .................................................... 72
3.2.2.2. The War, the Defeat and Retreat of the Ethiopian Army ............................ 77
3.2.2.3. The Exile of the Emperor, the Divide and Rule Policy of Italy, and the
Guerrilla War .............................................................................................. 83
3.2.2.4. Victory and the Restoration of Freedom ...................................................... 95
3.3. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 103
Chapter Four ........................................................................................................................... 106
Analyses and Interpretations of Representations of Political Events of the Post-war Period (1941-
1974).in Selected Amharic Novels ........................................................................................... 106
4.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 106
4.2. Discussion ........................................................................................................ 106
4.2.1. The politics of Hope and progress after the Restoration of Freedom. .......... 106
4.2.2. The Doom of the Hope and Progress of the People ...................................... 116
4.2.2.1. Class Composition and Production Relationships among the Different
Classes of the Society ............................................................................... 119
4.2.2.2. Inequality, Ethnicity and Bloodline ........................................................... 128
4.2.2.3. Relationships between Religion and State ................................................. 135
4.2.2.4. The Growing Oppositions and the Coup ................................................... 137
4.2.2.5. Factors that led to the 1974 revolution ...................................................... 142
4.3. Conclusion ........................................................................................................ 145
Chapter Five ............................................................................................................................ 149
Analyses and Interpretations of Representations of the Politics of the Darg Period (Feb. 1974 –
May 1991) in Selected Amharic Novels:. ................................................................................. 149
5.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................... 149
5.2. Discussion ........................................................................................................ 149
5. 2.1. The Eruption of the Revolution and the Darg .............................................. 150
5.2.2. Competitions for Power and the Red Terror ................................................. 154
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Description:The Representation of Ethiopian Politics in Selected Amharic Novels: 1930 - 2010. Anteneh Aweke Ewnetu for instance Dertogada, Ramatohara , and Yäburqa
