The Origins of Cocaine: Colonization and Failed Development in the Amazon Andes

190 Pages·2018·5.68 MB·English

by  Paul Gootenberg

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The Origins of Cocaine
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In the 1960s, the governments of Colombia, Peru, and Bolivia launched 13
agricultural settlement programs in each country’s vast Amazonian frontier 14
lowlands. Two decades later, these exact same zones had transformed into 15
the centers of the illicit cocaine boom of the Americas. Drawing on concepts 16
from both history and anthropology, The Origins of Cocaine explores how 17
three countries with divergent mid-century political trajectories ended up 18
with parallel outcomes in illicit frontier economies and cocalero cultures. 19
Bringing together transnational, national, and local analyses, the volume 20
provides an in-depth examination of the deep origins of drug economics in 21
the Americas. As the first substantial study on the shift from agrarian col- 22
onization to narcotization, The Origins of Cocaine will appeal to scholars 23
and postgraduate students of Latin American history, anthropology, global- 24
ization, development, and environmental studies. 25
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Paul Gootenberg is SUNY Distinguished Professor of History and Sociol- 27
ogy at Stony Brook University, USA, where he is also currently Chair of 28
the History Department. He is a former Chair of the Drugs, Security, and 29
Democracy Program (DSD) of the Social Science Research Council and 30
Open Society Foundations. 31
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Liliana M. Dávalos is Associate Professor of Conservation Biology at Stony 33
Brook University, USA. She has advised the United Nations Office of Drug 34
and Crime on deforestation since 2007 and is a co-author of the 2016 World 35
Drug Report. 36
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The Origins of Cocaine 01
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Colonization and Failed Development
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in the Amazon Andes 05
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Edited by Paul Gootenberg and 10
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Liliana M. Dávalos 12
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03 First published 2018
04 by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
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06 and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
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Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
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business
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© 2018 selection and editorial matter, Paul Gootenberg and Liliana
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M. Dávalos; individual chapters, the contributors
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The right of Paul Gootenberg and Liliana M. Dávalos to be identified
12 as the authors of the editorial material, and of the authors for their
13 individual chapters, has been asserted in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
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15 All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or
reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical,
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or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including
17 photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or
18 retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
19 Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
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explanation without intent to infringe.
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British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
22 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
24 A catalog record has been requested for this book
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ISBN: 978-1-138-59222-3 (hbk)
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ISBN: 978-0-429-48938-9 (ebk)
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28 Typeset in Sabon
by Sunrise Setting Ltd, Brixham, UK
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Contents
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List of illustrations vi 13
List of contributors viii 14
Acknowledgements x 15
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1 Introduction: Orphans of development: the unanticipated
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rise of illicit coca in the Amazon Andes, 1950–1990 1
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PAUL GOOTENBERG 20
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2 The ghosts of development past: deforestation and coca
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in western Amazonia 19
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LILIANA M. DÁVALOS 24
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3 Ideas of modernization and territorial transformation: the
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case of the Upper Huallaga Valley of Peru 53
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MARITZA PAREDES AND HERNÁN MANRIQUE 28
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4 Creating coca frontiers and cocaleros in Chapare:
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Bolivia, 1940 to 1990 84
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ANDREW C. MILLINGTON 32
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5 Economic development policies in Colombia
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(1960s–1990s) and the turn to coca in the Andes Amazon 114
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JENNIFER S. HOLMES, VIVECA PAVÓN, AND SHEILA AMIN 36
GUTIÉRREZ DE PIÑERES 37
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6 The making of a coca frontier: the case of Ariari, Colombia 133
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MARÍA-CLARA TORRES
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7 Epilogue: will governments confront coca cultivation, 41
or its causes? 160 42
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ADAM ISACSON
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Index 173 L46
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Illustrations
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13 Maps
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5.1 Colombian population growth from 1951 to 2005 (percentage) 120
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6.1 Colombian cordilleras and political division 137
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6.2 Meta Department and main western rivers 138
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19 Figures
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2.1 Stylized trajectory of forest fragmentation at agricultural
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frontiers, from old-growth forests to rural fields 23
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2.2 Annual deforestation rates from legal crops or from
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coca cultivation 24
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2.3 Summary of deforestation rates in areas or at times without
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illicit crops, or when coca cultivation was present 29
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2.4 Left: planned Carretera Marginal de La Selva connecting the
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Colombia–Venezuela border to Santa Cruz. Major centers of
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illegal coca production. Right: illegal coca cultivation in the
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Andean countries for 2014 41
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3.1 Inter-Andean valleys and colonization zones 59
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4.1 Areas of settlement and forest clearance in the Chapare
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lowlands, September 1966 87
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4.2 Sample Corona photographs of Bolivian Amazon, 1966 88
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5.1 GDP growth rate in constant dollars, including or excluding
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the illicit economy of Colombia 123
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5.2 GDP estimates of the Colombian national illicit economy in
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constant COP 124
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6.1 Mid-1960s liberal press presented the AFP agrarian reform
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as a showcase of success. The photo caption reads: This
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campesino was a few steps away from finding himself in a
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conflict zone. Now he is working the land. 2nd March 1964
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edition of El Tiempo (Courtesy of El Tiempo) 143
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Illustrations vii
Tables 01
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2.1 Deforestation rates in countries with coca cultivation
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recorded since 2000 and neighbors without records
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over same period 22
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2.2 Local and regional rates of forest loss with and without coca
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in Andean countries, in chronological order 31
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2.3 Government-sponsored colonization projects in western
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Amazonia, 1960s–1970s 42
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3.1 Major colonization projects in the Peruvian jungle from 1961
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to 1972 65
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3.2 List of World Bank loans to the Peruvian government through
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the Banco de Fomento Agropecuario (BFA) to expand
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agricultural credits (in USD) 70
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3.3 Percentage of BFA credits granted in the jungle,
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1941–1989 70
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3.4 Debts of cooperatives affiliated with colonization project
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Tingo Maria-Tocache-Campanilla for clearing forest 71
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3.5 Total population of Valle de Alto Huallaga (VAH),
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1940s–1980s 73
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3.6 Rural population growth rates in Alto Huallaga 74
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4.1 Cochabamba Department: provinces with municipalities in
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the Chapare lowlands in the 2012 census 90
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4.2 Socio-political organization and settlement geography for
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Villa Tunari Municipality in the 2001 census 91
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4.3 Settlements in the Chapare colonization zone, 1980 96
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4.4 Chapare: remaining forest cover by sector between
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1966 and 1988 98
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4.5 Coca leaf production, 1956–1963 in metric tons 100
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4.6 Reports of cocaine factories in Cochabamba, Santa Cruz, and
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Tarija departments, 1950–1967 101
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4.7 Coca production 1940–1990: Bolivia and Cochabamba and
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La Paz departments in metric tons 104
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4.8 Coca leaf production, 1956–1958 in metric tons 106
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5.1 Population trends and fraction of previous estimates
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(percentage) 119
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5.2 Rural preschool enrollment 120
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5.3 Rural preschool teachers 121
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5.4 Rural primary school enrollment 121
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5.5 Rural primary school teachers 121
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5.6 GDP per capita in constant 1975 pesos (1980–1989) 122
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5.7 Agriculture, ranching, and fishing as sectoral GDP 126
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6.1 Origin of Meta migrants in 1972 145
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6.2 Forms of land acquisition, Ariari, 1972 145
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Contributors
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13 Liliana M. Dávalos is Associate Professor of Conservation Biology at Stony
14 Brook University (New York). Dávalos is a 2012 National Academies of
15 Sciences Education Fellow in the Life Sciences, a 2013 Kavli Frontiers of
16 Science Fellow for outstanding early career, and has advised the United
17 Nations Office of Drug and Crime on deforestation since 2007. She is a
18 coauthor of the 2016 World Drug Report.
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Paul Gootenberg is SUNY Distinguished Professor of History and Sociology
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at Stony Brook University (New York), and current Chair of the History
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Department. He is author of Andean Cocaine: The Making of a Global
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Drug (UNC Press, 2008) and editor of Cocaine: Global Histories (Rout-
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ledge UK, 1999). From 2011 to 2014, he chaired the Drugs, Security, and
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Democracy Program (DSD) of the Social Science Research Council and
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Open Society Foundations.
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27 Adam Isacson is the Senior Associate for Defense Oversight at the Washing-
28 ton Office on Latin America (Washington, DC). At WOLA, his Defense
29 Oversight Program monitors security trends and U.S. military coopera-
30 tion with the Western Hemisphere, with a particular focus on Colombia.
31 He has published and co-written dozens of reports and articles, testified
32 before Congress several times, and led several congressional delegations.
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Sheila Amin Gutiérrez de Piñeres is the Dean of The Burnett Honors Col-
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lege and Professor of Public Administration at The University of Central
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Florida. Gutiérrez de Piñeres is a 2013 Founding Fellow of the University
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of Texas System Academy of Distinguished Teachers, and was a Fulbright
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Research Scholar in Colombia. She is author, with Jennifer S. Holmes and
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Kevin Curtin, of Guns, Thugs, and Development in Colombia (University
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of Texas Press, 2009) and, with Michael Ferrantino, of Export Dynam-
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ics and Economic Growth in Latin America: A Comparative Perspective
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(Ashgate Publishers, 2000).
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43 Jennifer S. Holmes is Professor and Head of Political Science and Political
44S Economy at the University of Texas at Dallas. Holmes received a 2011
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Contributors ix
author, with Sheila Amin Gutiérrez de Piñeres and Kevin Curtin, of Guns, 01
Thugs, and Development in Colombia (University of Texas Press, 2009) 02
and author of Terrorism and Democratic Stability (Manchester Univer- 03
sity Press, 2008). 04
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Hernán Manrique is a Teaching Assistant of Sociology at the Pontificia Uni-
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versidad Católica del Perú and Research Assistant at the Centro de Inves-
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tigación de la Universidad del Pacífico (Lima). He has published several
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articles on drug trafficking and drug policy in Peru. His thesis studied
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state building and alternative development in the Upper Huallaga Valley.
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Andrew C. Millington is Professor of Land Change Science and Distinguished 11
Scholar at Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia. He has worked on a 12
land use, conservation, and natural resources projects in Bolivia, funded 13
by various international agencies, since 1995. He is the co-author of the 14
both Land Change Science in the Tropics: Changing Agricultural Land- 15
scapes (Springer, 2008) and The Sage Handbook of Biogeography (Sage 16
2011). 17
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Maritza Paredes is Associate Professor of Sociology at La Pontificia Univer-
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sidad Católica del Perú (Lima).  She is the co-author of Resource Booms
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and Institutional Pathways. The Case of Peru (Palgrave, 2017). From
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2015 to 2016, she was a Research Fellow of the Drugs, Security, and
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Democracy Program (DSD) of the Social Science Research Council and
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Open Society Foundations.
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Viveca Pavón is a candidate for the PhD in Public Policy and Political Econ- 25
omy at the University of Texas at Dallas, and holds a BS in Economics 26
and an MBA from Texas A&M University. Her major area of interest is 27
violence and organized crime with an emphasis on Latin America, espe- 28
cially El Salvador, Guatemala, and Honduras. 29
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María-Clara Torres is a PhD candidate in the History Department at Stony
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Brook University and a former researcher at CINEP, the human rights
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NGO in Colombia. Her work has been funded by Colciencias, CLACSO,
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the Tinker Foundation, the Social Science Research Council, and a Grass-
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roots Development Fellowship of the Inter-American Foundation. She is
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the author of Estado y coca en la frontera colombiana: el caso de Putu-
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mayo (CINEP, 2011).
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