Table Of ContentTHE ORIGIN
G REEK TRAGIC FORM
A Study of the Early Theater in Attica
BY
AU GU ST C. M AHR, Ph. D.
The Ohio State University
N e w Y o r k
P R E N T IC E -H A L L ^ IN C .
1938
Copyright, 1938, By
PRENTICE-HALL, INC.
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. NO PART OF THIS BOOK
MAY nE REPRODUCED IX ANY FORM. BY MIMEO
GRAPH OR ANY OTHER MEANS. WITHOUT PER
MISSION IN WRITING FROM THE PUBLISHERS.
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES O»' AMERICA
JULIUS SCHOENEMANN
CLASSICAL SCHOLAR IN GERMANY,
MY BEI.OVED TEACHER AND
FRIEND Ol- A LIFETIME, THIS
BOOK IS GRATEFULLY DFDICATFD.
Preface
'"pH IS BOOK deals with the one aspect of the Greek the-
ater and drama that, so far, has been sadly neglected
although it is indispensable for an intelligent study of
this important branch of Hellenic art, namely, the origin
and development of the tragic form as a whole.
Since all previous books on Greek tragedy or the Greek
theater, without an exception, have been written by spe
cialists in classical literature, philology, or archaeology, the
fact has been overlooked that the field of tragic presenta
tion is, to a very considerable extent, the concern of the
student in the field of form analysis of the plastic arts.
The author, therefore, has applied to this study the ana
lytic methods of art criticism that seemed best adapted
to his purpose, since those of philology or archaeology or
literary history do not afford a standpoint from which the
complex form of tragic presentation can be viewed in its
totality. The methods of art criticism also promised more
comprehensive results, because this study deals with an
artistic activity of a race whose form of life was deter
mined by a clear sense of the finite. Consequently, the
Greeks arrived, in all arts, at forms that show a clearly
defined structure and are tactual, as it were. It is there
fore no more than natural that in an analysis of the Greek
tragic form the center of gravity should lie in a study of
the development of the visible scene if the various struc-
vii
Vlll PREFACE
tural elements of that form as a whole are expected to ap
pear in their characteristic relations to one another.
It need not be mentioned that the results of research
in philology, archaeology, literature, and in the plastic arts
have found careful consideration. Occasionally, when all
other sources failed, an inference was drawn on the basis
of the inner logic of form.
The scope and purpose of this study did not permit the
author to discuss whether the specific space concept of
the Hellenes was indigenous or acquired. Neither did
it seem necessary to give an account of the development
of Greek ethics prior to Plato, since his writings seem
to embody all that is essential in the practical reasoning
of the fifth century B. C.
The book is intended primarily for any intelligent
reader who wishes to acquaint himself with the basic
form principles that underlie the origin and development
of Greek tragedy and its theater. It may be profitably
used in any courses in classical literature, history of fine
arts, art criticism, or aesthetics, in which the instructor
intends to present this particular art form under the aspect
of organic growth, regardless of whether such courses be
offered in institutions of higher learning or in professional
schools of the drama or schools of fine arts.
The subject matter has been so organized that the book
makes not too difficult reading, even without the guidance
of a teacher. A glossary of unfamiliar terms has been
added, which, the author hopes, will meet all contingen
cies. The captions that accompany the numerous illus
trations arc so worded that they summarize in brief what
the illustrations are intended to demonstrate. Especial
PREFACE IX
attention has been given to the table of contents and to
the index, both of which will greatly facilitate a profitable
use of the book.
Thanks are due to the directors of the following mu
seums for their permission to reproduce photographs of
art works in their collections: the British Museum, Lon
don; the Musee du Louvre, Paris; the Museo Nazionale,
Naples; the Pergamon Museum, Berlin; the Glyptothek,
Munich; the Ny Carlsberg Glyptothek, Copenhagen.
Thanks are due to the University of Chicago Press for
the permission to quote a lengthy passage from one of
their publications; to Verlag F. Bruckmann A.-G., Munich,
Germany, for their permission to reproduce an illustra
tion from one of their books; to Fratelli Alinari, publishers,
Florence, Italy, for their permission to reprint two of their
photographs; to Professor Bernard Ashmole, University
College, London, for his photograph of the Statue of
Kleobis, and for the permission to reproduce it; to my
colleagues in the Ohio State University, Professors Richard
S. Buck, Jr. (School of Architecture), Ralph S. Fanning
(Department of Fine Arts), John B. Titchencr (Depart
ment of Classical Literature), for their invaluable assist
ance, both theoretical and technical; to my colleague in
the Department of History and Art Criticism at the Uni
versity of Wisconsin, Professor Oskar Hagen, for his price
less criticism and suggestions; and, last but not least, to
Professor Edgar Nelson Transcau and to his daughter,
my dear wife, Elizabeth Transeau Mahr, for their criti
cism and untiring aid in the revision and preparation of
the manuscript.
A u g u st C. M ah r
Contents
F undam entals
Spacc and time as prerequisites of artistic effect, i; Dramatic
space and dramatic time, 2; Dramatic spacc and theatrical
spacc not identical, 3; Form of nation's drama determined by
its basic concepts of spacc and time, 3.
PART 1
Origin and Form D evelopment of the
T ragic L ocale
CHAPTER
I. Outline of the G reek Character...............
Greek form of life and its relation to space and time, 9; Prob
lem of infinity, 9; Greek ethics and tragic conflicts, 10; Dra
matic action static and not dynamic, 12; Character develop
ment a comparatively late achievement, 12.
II. T he Beginnings of T ragic Presentation
U nder Pisistratus ...................................................
Pisistratus' reorganization of the Dionysian cult festival, 14;
Introduction of mythological elements into choral lyrics, 15;
Thespis of Icaria, 16.
III. Origin of the T heater Fo rm ...........................
Account of author's methods. 18; Meaning of spacc as applied
in these pages, 19; Circular orchestra as structural nucleus of
Graeco-Roman theater type, 19: History of term XOQO;, 19;
Propensity of Dorians toward bounded locale, 21; Character
of their choral art, 21; Inferences from fact that in Sparta
market placc was named 7.0001;, 22; Doric architecture rests
on same basic principle as docs choral art of Dorians, 23;
Dionysian dithyramb and its circular orchestra. 24; Drama not
to be considered developmental stage of dithyramb, 24; Chorus
XII CO NTENTS
III. O rigin of th e T h eater Form (Cont.)
that first actor met in orchestra, a dramatic chorus by neces-
sity, 25: Drama never attained equality with dithyramb as j>art
of ritual. 25; Kinetic pattern of dithyramb, 27; Agreement
with W01.1 h .in's statement that, in development of artistic ex
pression. line universally precedes plane. 30; Centripetal re
lations also prevail in Parthenon. 32; Character and importance
of oldest dramatic chorus, 34; Location of first dramatic pres
entations in Athens doubtful, 36; Form of oldest orchestra
anil station of first actor, 37; Inner, tragic, orchestra, 42;
Origin of longitudinal axis of theater, 43; Vertical plane char
acter of actor's appearance, 46; Perceptual plane in archaic
sculpture in the round, 48.
IV. T he Basic Form of T ragic Presentation 53
Kinetic pattern of cpeisodion exclusive basis for the dramati
zation of plot situations, 54; Subsequent modifications of
kinetic pattern, 55: T mispis and Epiphany of Dionysus, 56.
V. T he Character of A ttic T ragedy Before
A eschylus 62
Increased concern with ethical problems, 62; Completion of
traditional form pattern of tragedy before 500 B.C., 62;
Sublimation of Dionysian ecstasy, 62; Dialogue gradually ac
quires equal rank with choral parts, 62: Phrynichus and
his development. 63.
VI. A eschylus and the D evelopment of the
Classic Form i>5
Introduction of the second actor widens range of action, 65:
It makes vertical plane an essential integrant of theater, 65;
Ideal vertical plane of inner contact, 66; Visible vertical plane
—first erection of background structures, 66; Aesthetic sig
nificance of oxi|v»|, 69; Vertical plane of dialogue contrasts
with horizontal plane of chorus, 69; Stratified perceptual
plane as .111 aesthetic characteristic of Greek sculptural form.
70; of architecture. 71: of unengaged statues in the round.
72; primitive and classic planes according to VVolfklin,
72; Figure of first actor has primitive plane character, 76;
Structural premises of two-actor scene, 77; Sculptural reliefs
as stratified planes, 77; Development of visible tragic scene
from primitive to classic stratified plane. 82; Amplification
of stratified scene plane by means of decorative painting, 87;
CONTENTS Xlll
CHAPTER *ACE
VI. Aeschylus and the Developm ent of the
Classic Form (Cont.)
Parasccnia and proscenium and their aesthetic significance, 90:
Uniform penetration of all its strata main characteristic of
classic plane of scene. 98; Analogy to classic relief sculpture,
98; Eccyclema, 101; Aesthetic significance of cccyclcma, 104.
VII. H istorical and A esthetical Outlook on
the F uture D evelopment 105
Capacity for illusion, 105; Difficulty for modern man to com
prehend completely form of Attic tragedy. 106; Continuity
of dramatic action and function of chorus, 107; Development
of dramatic action and function of chorus. 107; Development
form. 108; Dionysian charactcr of tragic experience, 108:
Steadily decreasing importance of chorus, 109; Pseudo-Aris
totelian unity of place and its origin, 111; In Attic tragedy,
such unity of place, or time, non-existent as an aesthetic prin
ciple, 112; Perceptual stratified plane of scene constitutes an
acsthctic unity of place, 112: Relativity of artistic effects. 113;
longevity of mistaken notions held by Italian humanists, 114.
VIII. T he H ellenistic Structure of the D ionysus
T heater 115
Ncccssary modification of methods applied, 115; Compari
son of foundations of Hellenistic structure with those of
Lycurgus theater, 118: Change in aesthetic outlook of Hellen
istic era, 119; Loosening of plane precedes its dissolution.
120; Analogous observation in statuary of period. 121; Prob
lem of elevated stage, 122; Statements of V itruvius, 123: No
elevated stage in Athens, 124: Hellenistic proscenium and its
part in conquest of spatial depth. 126; Hellenistic space con
cept illustrated: Altar of Zeus at Pergamon, 127; In Hellenistic
art there exist planes of departure for purpose of establishing
depth relations of composition. 133; Functional analysis of
structural elements of Hellenistic Dionysus theater, 136:
Approximate idea of presentation character of proscenium
panels may be gained from certain murals at Boscoreale, i *8:
An important statement of V itruvius, 140; Hellenistic cpi-
scenium presumably served as theologium but not as elevated
stage for entire action. 141: Hellenistic Dionysus theater repre
sents completion of development of Attic theater form, 141;
From here, road starts toward actual penetration of depths of
scenic background, 142.
XIV CO NTENTS
chapter page
IX. T he Roman Structure of the D ionysus
T heater 144
Chronology of main steps of functional development of Dio
nysus theater, 144; Reconstruction of Roman Dionysus theater,
146; Projecting stage platform, together with wide openings
of doors and windows, encouraged orientation in direction of
depth dimension, 149; Roman structure no longer served
serious drama, 149; During Italian Renaissance, Roman theater
type became germ cell of European perspective stage, 150.
PART II
T he Epeisodion as the Formative A gent of
A ttic T ragedy
X. Form D evelopment of the Epeisodion 153
Brief summary of Chapter IV, "The Basic Form of Tragic
Presentation," with which this chapter connects, 153; In
troduction of a second actor did not at once deprive chorus
of its function as dramatic opponent to protagonist, 155;
Enforced formal restraint led to resourcefulness, 155; In ad
dition to being a stranger opposing native group, individual
was presented as being weak and impotent, 156; Increased
dramatic possibilities through modifications of original kinetic
pattern, 157; What is called tragic in modern sense resulted
from such modification, 157; This particular concept of trag
edy was achieved simultaneously with completion of classic
scene plane, 159; At same time, tragic conflicts between in
dividuals were discovered to be dramatically more fruitful
than conflicts between individual and group. 159; This de
velopment of tragic form has many characteristics of organic
growth, 161; In spite of incessant individual interference, line
of development shows unbroken continuity, 161; Similar forms
arc bound to develop on basis of similar premises, 161: Par
allel development of Italian opera and Attic tragedy, 161.
XI. T he Epeisodion Form in the Existing T rag
edies of A eschylus................................................... 164
Chronology of seven tragedies in question, 164; Analysis of
individual plays, 165; (1) Suppliants, 165; Formal reasons
for static intensity of action, 165; Reversal of normal scene
prototype: foreign group—native individual, 166; Analysis of
action, 168; Form and function of successive epcisodia and
