Table Of ContentTHE ORIGIN OF LIFE
FIVE QUESTIONS WORTH ASKING
THE ORIGIN OF LIFE
FIVE QUESTIONS WORTH ASKING
1
QUESTION How Did Life Begin? PAGE4
2
QUESTION Is Any Form of Life Really Simple? PAGE8
3
QUESTION Where Did the Instructions Come From? PAGE13
4
QUESTION Has All Life Descended From a Common Ancestor? PAGE22
5
QUESTION Is It Reasonable to Believe the Bible? PAGE30
Bibliography PAGE31
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TheOriginofLife—FiveQuestionsWorthAsking
English(lf-E)
MadeintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
A STUDENT’S DILEMMA
Petershiftsuneasilyinhischair,aknotforminginhisstomach.Histeacher,
awomanherespects,hasjustfinisheddescribinghowCharlesDarwinandhis
theoryofevolutionadvancedscientificunderstandingandliberatedmankind
fromsuperstitiousbeliefs.Nowshehasinvitedherstudentstoexpresstheir
opinionsonthistopic.
Peterfacesadilemma.HisparentshavetaughthimthatGodcreatedtheearth
andalllifeonit.TheysaythattheBible’saccountofcreationistrustworthyand
thatevolutionissimplyatheory—onenotsupportedbytheevidence.Peter’s
teacherandhisparentsallmeanwell.ButwhomshouldPeterbelieve?
Each school year, scenarios like the port the efforts of religious groups who
above play out in thousands of class- want to have creation taught in schools.
rooms around the globe. What should Thepurposeofthisbrochureistoexam-
Peter and students like him do? Would ineclaimsmadebythosewhoteachthat
you not agree that they really need to life appeared spontaneously and assert
makeuptheirownmindsonthismatter? that the Bible’s account of creation is a
They need to examine the evidence for myth.
evolution and for creation and then de- Wewillfocus onthe cellbecause that
cide for themselves which they will be- isthe most basicunit of life.You will be
lieve. able to reviewsome amazing facts about
In fact, the Bible warns against blind- howcellsarebuilt.Youwillalsobeasked
ly believing what others teach. “Anyone toanalyzetheassumptionsthatunderpin
inexperienced puts faith in every word,” thetheoryofevolution.
states one Bible writer, “but the shrewd Sooner or later, all of us need to con-
one considers his steps.” (Proverbs 14: front the question, Was life created, or
15) The Bible encourages Christians to diditevolve?Youlikelyhavealreadygiv-
usetheir“powerofreason”andtoprove en this topic serious thought. This bro-
to themselves the things they are taught. chure will present just some of the evi-
—Romans12:1,2. dence that has led many to believe that
This brochure is not designed to sup- lifewascreated.
ASTUDENT’SDILEMMA 3
1
HOW DID LIFE BEGIN?
Whenyouwereachild,didyoueverstartleyourparentsbyasking,“Wheredo
babiescomefrom?”Ifso,howdidtheyrespond?Dependingonyourageand
theirpersonality,yourparentsmighthaveignoredthequestionorgivenyoua
hurried,embarrassedanswer.Orperhapstheytoldyousomefancifultalesthat
youlaterfoundtobefalse.Ofcourse,ifachildistobeproperlypreparedfor
adulthoodandmarriage,heorsheeventuallyneedstolearnaboutthewonders
ofsexualreproduction.
Justasmanyparentsfeelawkwardaboutdiscussingwherebabiescomefrom,
somescientistsseemreluctanttodiscussanevenmorefundamentalquestion
—Wheredidlifecomefrom?Receivingacredibleanswertothatquestioncan
haveaprofoundeffectonaperson’soutlookonlife.Sohowdidlifebegin?
What do many scientists claim? Many
who believe in evolution would tell you
that billions of years ago, life began
on the edge of an ancient tidal pool or
deepintheocean.Theyfeelthatinsome
such location, chemicals spontaneous-
ly assembled into bubblelike structures,
formed complex molecules, and began
replicating. They believe that all life on
earth originated by accident from one or
moreofthese“simple”originalcells.
Otherequallyrespectedscientistswho
also support evolution disagree. They
speculate that the first cells or at least
theirmajorcomponentsarrivedon earth
fromouterspace.Why?Because,despite
theirbestefforts,scientistshavebeenun-
able to prove that life can spring from
nonliving molecules. In 2008, Professor
Afertilizedhumaneggcell,shownabout
of Biology Alexandre Meinesz highlight-
800timesitsactualsize
ed the dilemma. He stated that over the
last50years,“noempiricalevidencesup-
4 THEORIGINOFLIFE
ports the hypotheses of the spontaneous
appearanceoflifeonEarthfromnothing
but a molecular soup, and no significant
advance in scientific knowledge leads in
thisdirection.”1
What does the evidence reveal? The
answer to the question, Where do babies
come from? is well-documented and un-
controversial. Life always comes from
preexisting life. However, if we go back
farenoughintime,isitreallypossiblethat
this fundamental law was broken? Could
lifereallyspontaneouslyspringfromnon-
living chemicals? What are the chances
STANLEYMILLER,1953
thatsuchaneventcouldhappen?
Researchers have learned that for a with ease in Miller-type experiments and
cell to survive, at least three different werepresentinmeteorites.Thisisnotthe
types of complex molecules must work case.”2(cid:2)
together—DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid),
ConsidertheRNAmolecule.Itiscon-
RNA (ribonucleic acid), and proteins.
structed of smaller molecules called nu-
Today, few scientists would assert that a
cleotides.Anucleotideisadifferentmol-
complete living cell suddenly formed by
ecule from an amino acid and is only
chance from a mix of inanimate chemi-
slightly more complex. Shapiro says that
cals.What,though,istheprobabilitythat
“nonucleotidesofanykindhavebeenre-
RNAorproteinscouldformbychance?(cid:2)
portedasproductsofspark-dischargeex-
Many scientists feel that life could periments or in studies of meteorites.”3
arisebychancebecauseofanexperiment He further states that the probability of
first conducted in 1953. In that year, aself-replicatingRNAmoleculerandom-
Stanley L. Miller was able to produce ly assembling from a pool of chemical
someaminoacids,thechemicalbuilding building blocks “is so vanishingly small
blocks of proteins, by discharging elec- that its happening even once anywhere
tricity into a mixture of gases that was in the visible universe would count as a
thought to represent the atmosphere of pieceofexceptionalgoodluck.”4
primitive earth. Since then, amino acids
What about protein molecules? They
have also been found in a meteorite. Do
can be made from as few as 50 or as
these findings mean that all the basic
many as several thousand amino acids
buildingblocksoflifecouldeasilybepro-
boundtogetherinahighlyspecificorder.
ducedbychance?
Theaveragefunctionalproteinina“sim-
“Some writers,” says Robert Shapiro, ple”cellcontains200aminoacids.Even
professor emeritus of chemistry at New
YorkUniversity,“havepresumedthatall (cid:2)Professor Shapiro does not believe that life was
created.Hebelievesthatlifearosebychanceinsome
life’s building blocks could be formed
fashionnotyetfullyunderstood.In2009,scientistsat
theUniversityofManchester,England,reportedmak-
(cid:2)The probability of DNA forming by chance will ing some nucleotides in their lab. However, Shapiro
be discussed in section 3, “Where Did the Instruc- states that their recipe “definitely does not meet my
tionsComeFrom?” criteriaforaplausiblepathwaytotheRNAworld.”
1 HOWDIDLIFEBEGIN? 5
1 – —
RNA isrequiredtomakeproteins ,yet
proteinsareinvolvedintheproductionofRNA.
Howcouldeitheronearisebychance,letalone
˜
both?Ribosomes willbediscussedin
section2.
2
3
in those cells, there are thousands of dif- Administration’s Astrobiology Institute.
ferent types of proteins. The probability “Yet,” she continues, “most researchers
thatjustoneproteincontainingonly100 seem to assume that if they can make
amino acids could ever randomly form sense of the independent production of
on earth has been calculated to be about proteinsandRNAundernaturalprimor-
onechanceinamillionbillion. dial conditions, the coordination will
somehow take care of itself.” Regarding
Researcher Hubert P. Yockey, who
the current theories of how these build-
supports the teaching of evolution, goes
ing blocks of life could have arisen by
further.Hesays:“Itisimpossiblethatthe
chance, she says: “None of them have
origin of life was ‘proteins first.’”5 RNA
provided us with a very satisfying story
isrequiredtomakeproteins,yetproteins
abouthowthishappened.”6
are involved in the production of RNA.
What if, despite the extremely small Why do these facts matter? Think of
odds, both proteins and RNA molecules the challenge facing researchers who
did appear by chance in the same place feel that life arose by chance. They have
at the same time? How likely would it foundsomeaminoacidsthatalsoappear
in living cells. In their laboratories, they
have,bymeansofcarefullydesignedand
Ifthecreationofcomplexmoleculesinthe
laboratoryrequirestheskillofascientist, directed experiments, manufactured oth-
couldthefarmorecomplexmoleculesin er more complex molecules. Ultimately,
acellreallyarisebychance? they hope to build all the parts needed
to construct a “simple” cell. Their situa-
be for them to cooperate to form a self- tioncouldbelikenedtothatofascientist
replicating, self-sustaining type of life? who takes naturally occurring elements;
“The probability of this happening by transforms them into steel, plastic, sili-
chance (given a random mixture of pro- cone, and wire; and constructs a robot.
teins and RNA) seems astronomically Hethenprogramstherobottobeableto
low,”saysDr.CarolCleland(cid:2),amember build copies of itself. By doing so, what
will he prove? Atbest, thatan intelligent
of the National Aeronautics and Space
entity can create an impressive machine.
(cid:2)Dr.Clelandisnotacreationist.Shebelievesthat Similarly, if scientists ever did con-
lifearosebychanceinsomefashionnotyetfullyun-
struct a cell, they would accomplish
derstood.
6 THEORIGINOFLIFE
somethingtrulyamazing—butwouldthey
provethatthecellcouldbemadebyacci-
dent? If anything, they would prove the
veryopposite,wouldtheynot?
What do you think? All scientific evi-
dencetodateindicatesthatlifecancome
only from previously existing life. To be-
lievethatevena“simple”livingcellarose
by chance from nonliving chemicals re-
quiresahugeleapoffaith.
Given the facts, are you willing to
makesuch aleap?Beforeansweringthat
question, take a closer look at the way a
cell is made. Doing so will help you dis-
cernwhetherthetheoriessomescientists
propoundaboutwherelifecamefromare
soundorareasfancifulasthetalessome
parents tell about where babies come
from.
Ifittakesanintelligententitytocreateand
programalifelessrobot,whatwouldittake
tocreatealivingcell,letaloneahuman?
FACTSANDQUESTIONS
˛Fact:Allscientificresearchindicatesthatlife whoperformedtheexperimentrepresent?Does
cannotspringfromnonlivingmatter. he or she represent blind chance or an intelli-
Question:Whatisthescientificbasisforsaying gententity?
thatthefirstcellsprangfromnonlivingchemi- ˛Fact:ProteinandRNAmoleculesmustwork
cals? togetherforacelltosurvive.Scientistsadmit
˛Fact:Researchershaverecreatedinthelab- that it is highly unlikely that RNA formed by
oratorytheenvironmentalconditionsthatthey chance.Theoddsagainstevenoneproteinform-
believe existed early in the earth’s history. In ing by chance are astronomical. It is exceeding-
theseexperiments,afewscientistshavemanu- lyimprobablethatRNAandproteinsshouldform
facturedsomeofthemoleculesfoundinliving bychanceinthesame placeatthesame time
things. andbeabletoworktogether.
Question: If the chemicals in the experiment Question:Whattakesgreaterfaith—tobelieve
representtheearth’searlyenvironmentandthe thatthemillionsofintricatelycoordinatedparts
molecules produced represent the building ofacellarosebychanceortobelievethatthe
blocksoflife,whomorwhatdoesthescientist cellistheproductofanintelligentmind?
1 HOWDIDLIFEBEGIN? 7
2
IS ANY FORM OF LIFE
REALLY SIMPLE?
BRAINCELL
Yourbodyisoneofthemostcomplex
structuresintheuniverse.Itismadeup
ofsome100trilliontinycells—bonecells,
bloodcells,braincells,tonameafew.7
Infact,therearemorethan200different
typesofcellsinyourbody.8
Despitetheiramazingdiversityinshape EYECELLS
andfunction,yourcellsformanintricate,
integratednetwork.TheInternet,with
itsmillionsofcomputersandhigh-speed
datacables,isclumsyincomparison.No
humaninventioncancompetewiththe
technicalbrillianceevidentineventhe
BONECELL
mostbasicofcells.Howdidthecellsthat
makeupthehumanbodycomeinto
existence?
Whatdomanyscientistsclaim?Allliv-
ing cells fall into two major categories
—thosewithanucleusandthosewithout. MUSCLECELLS
Human, animal, and plant cells have a
nucleus.Bacterialcellsdonot.Cellswith
a nucleus are called eukaryotic. Those
withouta nucleus are known as prokary-
otic.Sinceprokaryoticcellsarerelatively
lesscomplexthaneukaryoticcells,many
believe that animal and plant cells must
haveevolvedfrombacterialcells. REDBLOODCELLS
In fact, many teach that for millions
Couldthemorethan200different
ofyears,some“simple”prokaryotic cells
kindsofcellsthatmakeupyour
swallowed other cells but did not digest bodyreallyformbyaccident?
8 THEORIGINOFLIFE
Couldevena“simple”cellreallyarise
fromnonlivingchemicals?
them. Instead, the theory goes, unintelli-
gent “nature” figured out a way not only
to make radical changes in the function
of the ingested cells but also to keep the
adapted cells inside of the “host” cell
whenitreplicated.9(cid:2)
What does the Bible say? The Bible
THECELL’SPROTECTIVEWALL
states that life on earth is the product
To tour a prokaryotic cell, you would
of an intelligent mind. Note the Bible’s
have to shrink to a size that is hundreds
clear logic: “Of course, every house is
of times smaller than the period at the
constructedbysomeone,buthethatcon-
end of this sentence. Keeping you out
structed all things is God.” (Hebrews
of the cell is a tough, flexible membrane
3:4) Another Bible passage says: “How
thatactslikeabrickandmortarwallsur-
many your works are, O Jehovah! All
rounding a factory. It would take some
of them in wisdom you have made. The
10,000 layers of this membrane to equal
earth is full of your productions. . . .
thethicknessofasheetofpaper.Butthe
Therearemovingthingswithoutnumber,
membraneofacellismuchmoresophis-
living creatures, small as well as great.”
ticatedthanthebrickwall.Inwhatways?
—Psalm104:24,25.
Like the wall surrounding a factory,
What does the evidence reveal? Ad-
the membrane of a cell shields the con-
vancesinmicrobiologyhavemadeitpos-
tents from a potentially hostile environ-
sibletopeerintotheawe-inspiringinteri-
ment. However, the membrane is not
orofthesimplestlivingprokaryoticcells
solid; it allows the cell to “breathe,” per-
known. Evolutionary scientists theorize
mitting small molecules, such as oxy-
thatthefirstlivingcellsmusthavelooked
gen,topassinorout.Butthemembrane
somethinglikethesecells.10
blocksmorecomplex,potentiallydamag-
If the theory of evolution is true, it ing molecules from entering without the
should offer a plausible explanation of cell’s permission. The membrane also
how the first “simple” cell formed by prevents useful molecules from leaving
chance. On the other hand, if life was the cell. How does the membrane man-
created, there should be evidence of agesuchfeats?
ingenious design even in the smallest
Thinkagainofafactory.Itmighthave
of creatures. Why not take a tour of a
security guards who monitor the prod-
prokaryotic cell?Asyou doso, ask your-
ucts that enter and leave through the
self whether such a cell could arise by
doorways in the factory wall. Similarly,
chance. the cell membrane has special protein
moleculesembeddedinitthatactlikethe
(cid:2)No experimental evidence exists to show that
doorsandthesecurityguards.
suchaneventispossible.
2 ISANYFORMOFLIFEREALLYSIMPLE? 9
3
would see the cell make about 20 differ-
2 ent basic building blocks called amino
acids. These building blocks are deliv-
ered to the ribosomes (5), which may be
likened to automated machines that link
4
the amino acids in a precise order to
form a specific protein. Just as the op-
erations of a factory might be governed
by a central computer program, many of
the functions of a cell are governed by a
Thecellmembranehas “computer program,” or code, known as
“securityguards”thatallow
DNA (6). From the DNA, the ribosome
1 onlyspecificsubstancesto
passinorout receives a copy of detailed instructions
thattellitwhichproteintobuildandhow
tobuildit(7).
What happens as the protein is made
is nothing short of amazing! Each one
Someoftheseproteins(1)haveahole folds into a unique three-dimensional
through the middle of them that allows shape(8).Itisthisshapethatdetermines
only specific types of molecules in and the specialized job that the protein will
out of the cell. Other proteins are open do.(cid:2) Picture a production line where en-
ononesideofthecellmembrane(2)and ginepartsarebeingassembled.Eachpart
closed on the other. They have a dock- needs to be precisely constructed if the
ing site (3) shaped to fit a specific sub-
stance. When that substance docks, the (cid:2)Enzymes are one example of proteins made by
cells.Eachenzymeisfoldedinaspecialwaytoaccel-
otherendoftheproteinopensandreleas-
erateaparticularchemical reaction.Hundredsof en-
es the cargo through the membrane (4). zymescooperatetoregulatethecell’sactivities.
All this activity is happening on the sur-
faceofeventhesimplestofcells.
6
INSIDETHEFACTORY
Imagine that you have been allowed
pastthe“securityguard”andarenowin-
sidethecell.Theinteriorofaprokaryotic
cellisfilledwithawateryfluidthatisrich
in nutrients, salts, and other substanc-
es.The cell usesthese raw ingredients to
manufacture the products it needs. But 7
the process is nothaphazard. Like an ef-
ficiently run factory, the cell organizes
thousands of chemical reactions so that 8
theytakeplaceinaspecificorderandac-
cordingtoasettimetable.
A cell spends a lot of its time making
proteins. How does it do so? First, you 5
10 THEORIGINOFLIFE
