The Neuronal Environment: Brain Homeostasis in Health and Disease

428 Pages·2010·6.545 MB·English

by  Wolfgang Walz

The
Neuronal
Environment
Brain Homeostasis
in Health and Disease
Edited by
Wolfgang Walz
Humana Press
The Neuronal Environment
Contemporary Neuroscience
The Neuronal Environment: Brain Highly Selective Neurotoxins: Basic and
Homeostasis in Health and Disease, Clinical Applications, edited by
edited by Wolfgang Walz, 2002 Richard M. Kostrzewa, 1998
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2/e, edited by Maarten E. A. Reith, Wood, 1998
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Pathogenesis of Neurodegenerative edited by Mark P. Mattson, 1998
Disorders, edited by Mark P. Mattson, Clinical Pharmacology of Cerebral
2001 Ischemia, edited by Gert J. Ter Horst
Stem Cells and CNS Development, edited andJakob Korf, 1997
byMahendra S. Rao, 2001 Molecular Mechanisms of Dementia,
Neurobiology of Spinal Cord Injury, edited by Wilma Wasco and
edited byRobert G. Kalb and Rudolph E. Tanzi, 1997
Stephen M. Strittmatter, 2000 Neurotransmitter Transporters:
Cerebral Signal Transduction: From Structure, Function, and Regulation,
First to Fourth Messengers, edited by edited by Maarten E. A. Reith, 1997
Maarten E. A. Reith, 2000 Motor Activity and Movement Disorders:
Central Nervous System Diseases: Research Issues and Applications,
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Clinic,edited by Dwaine F. Emerich, Klaus-Peter Ossenkopp, and
Reginald L. Dean, III, Martin Kavaliers,1996
and Paul R. Sanberg,2000 Neurotherapeutics: Emerging
Mitochondrial Inhibitors and Strategies, edited by Linda M. Pullan
Neurodegenerative Disorders, edited andJitendra Patel, 1996
byPaul R. Sanberg, Hitoo Nishino, Neuron–Glia Interrelations During
and Cesario V. Borlongan, 2000 Phylogeny: II. Plasticity and
Cerebral Ischemia: Molecular and Regeneration, edited byAntonia
Cellular Pathophysiology, edited by Vernadakis and Betty I. Roots, 1995
Wolfgang Walz, 1999 Neuron–Glia Interrelations During
Cell Transplantation for Neurological Phylogeny: I. Phylogeny and
Disorders, edited by Ontogeny of Glial Cells, edited by
Thomas B. Freeman and Antonia Vernadakis and
Håkan Widner,1998 Betty I. Roots, 1995
Gene Therapy for Neurological The Biology of Neuropeptide Y and
Disorders and Brain Tumors, edited Related Peptides, edited
byE. Antonio Chiocca and byWilliam F. Colmers and
Xandra O. Breakefield, 1998 Claes Wahlestedt, 1993
The Neuronal
Environment
Brain Homeostasis
in Health and Disease
Edited by
Wolfgang Walz
Department of Physiology,
University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon,
Saskatchawan, Canada
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Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
The neuronal environment: brain homeostasis in health and diease/edited by
Wolfgang Walz
p. cm.--(Contemporary neuroscience)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN : 0-89603-882-3 (alk. paper)
1. Neurons--Physiology. 2. Homeostasis. 3. Neuroglia. 4. Brain--Metabolism. 5. Blood-brain barrier.
I. Walz, Wolfgang. II. Series.
QP363.N47758 2002
612.8’2--dc21
2001039827
Preface
To function properly, neurons cannot tolerate fluctuations of their local environ-
mental variables. This mainly results from their high degree of specialization in synap-
tic integration and action potential conduction. Even small changes of certain
extracellular ion concentrations, as well as in the dimensions of the extracellular space,
alter ion channel kinetics in such a way as to distort the information represented by the
nerve impulses. Another potential problem is the huge consumption of glucose and
oxygen by neurons caused by the heavy compensatory ion pumping used for counter-
acting passive ion flux. This problem is compounded by the low glucose storage capac-
ity of the neurons. A complicated structure surrounds the neurons to sustain the required
level of metabolites and to remove waste products.
The Neuronal Environment: Brain Homeostasis in Health and Disease
examines the function of all the components involved, including their perturbation dur-
ing major disease states, and relates them to neuronal demands. The two introductory
chapters focus on neuronal requirements. The dependence of their excitability on
external factors that accumulate in the extracellular space, as well as their varying
demands for energy metabolites, are described. Following that, the close interaction of
neurons with elements of their microenvironment is illustrated. The extracellular space
is no longer seen as a passive constituent of the CNS, but as a separate compartment in
its own right, as a communication channel, and an entity that reacts with plastic changes
in its size that will affect the concentrations of all its contents. Astrocytes participate in
many neuronal processes, particularly in the removal of excess waste and signal sub-
stances, the supply of energy metabolites, and the modulation of synaptic transmission.
In addition to their homeostatic role, astrocytes are now seen as an active partner
involved in synaptic transmission between neurons. The classical example of a close
relationship of neurons with a component of their environment is, of course, their rela-
tionship with the surrounding myelin sheath. This speeds up action potential conduc-
tion, but is itself a potential source of problems in various disease states. In the last few
years new imaging techniques have demonstrated a close coupling between local blood
flow and neuronal activity, and several theories have been put forward to explain these
interactions. The special status of the brain in having its own insulated circulation
system—the cerebrospinal fluid contained in the ventricles and ducts—is also under-
lined. The brain is the only organ that is protected from fluctuations of blood-borne
chemicals by the existence of the blood–brain barrier. However, windows exist in this
barrier in the form of the circumventricular organs that allow direct two-way commu-
nication between neurons and blood constituents. Finally, despite their protection and
insulation, the neurons are accessible to the immune system. Resident macrophages
and invasion by blood-borne immune cells that cross the endothelial cell barrier enable
v
vi Preface
an immune reaction to take place. This complex interaction of neurons with their
immediate environment is integral to the tasks that the neurons must perform to ensure
that the organism can cope with its environmental challenges. Most diseases originat-
ing in the brain start in these accessory systems of the neuronal microenvironment and
affect neurons only second hand. Therefore, understanding the elements of the neu-
ronal environment and the interactions with neurons, and with each other, is crucial in
understanding the development and impact of most brain diseases.
All the authors contributing to The Neuronal Environment: Brain Homeostasis in
Health and Disease have made an attempt not only to explain the normal functioning
of these accessory elements, but also their involvement in major diseases. Therefore,
this book not only addresses researchers, graduate students, and educators who want to
understand the complex environment of neurons, but also health professionals who
need to know more about the normal homeostatic role of the neuronal environment to
follow disease patterns.
Wolfgang Walz
Contents
Preface..............................................................................................................v
Contributors ...................................................................................................ix
I. NEURONAL ACTIVITYAND ITS DEPENDENCEON THE MICROENVIRONMENT
1 Central Nervous System Microenvironment
and Neuronal Excitability.......................................................................3
Stephen Dombrowski, Imad Najm, and Damir Janigro
2 Neuronal Energy Requirements..............................................................25
Avital Schurr
II. BRAIN MICROENVIRONMENT
3 Plasticity of the Extracellular Space........................................................57
Eva Syková
4 Transmitter–Receptor Mismatches in Central Dopamine,
Serotonin, and Neuropeptide Systems: Further Evidence
for Volume Transmission ........................................................................83
Anders Jansson, Laurent Descarries, Virginia Cornea-Hébert,
Mustapha Riad, Daniel Vergé, Mircea Bancila,
Luigi Francesco Agnati, and Kjell Fuxe
5 The Extracellular Matrix in Neural Development, Plasticity,
and Regeneration..................................................................................109
Jeremy Garwood, Nicolas Heck, Franck Rigato,
and Andreas Faissner
6 Homeostatic Properties of Astrocytes..................................................159
Wolfgang Walz and Bernhard H. J. Juurlink
7 Glutamate–Mediated Astrocyte–Neuron Communication
in Brain Physiology and Pathology ..................................................187
Micaela Zonta and Giorgio Carmignoto
8 Axonal Conduction and Myelin ............................................................211
Jeffrey D. Kocsis
9 Coupling of Blood Flow to Neuronal Excitability..............................233
Albert Gjedde
III. BRAIN MACROENVIRONMENT
10 Choroid Plexus and the Cerebrospinal–Interstitial
Fluid System..........................................................................................261
Roy O. Weller
vii
viii Contents
11 The Blood–Brain Barrier..........................................................................277
Richard F. Keep
12 Circumventricular Organs......................................................................309
James W. Anderson and Alastair V. Ferguson
13 Glial Linings of the Brain........................................................................341
Marc R. Del Bigio
IV. IMMUNE SYSTEM-NEURON INTERACTIONS
14 Microglia in the CNS ..............................................................................379
Sophie Chabot and V. Wee Yong
15 Invasion of Ischemic Brain by Immune Cells......................................401
Hiroyuki Kato and Takanori Oikawa
Index..............................................................................................................419
Contributors
LUIGI FRANCESCO AGNATI,Department of Human Physiology,
University of Modena, Modena, Italy
JAMES W. ANDERSON,Department of Physiology, Queen’s University,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
MIRCEA BANCILA, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie de Signaux Intercellulaires,
Institut des Neurosciences, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, France
GIORGIO CARMIGNOTO, Department of Experimental Biomedical Sciences,
University of Padova, Padova, Italy
SOPHIE CHABOT, Department of Oncology and Clinical Neurosciences,
University of Calgary, Calgary, Canada
VIRGINIA CORNEA-HÉBERT,Département de Pathologie et Biologie Cellulaire,
Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
MARC DEL BIGIO, Department of Pathology, Health Sciences Centre and
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada
LAURENT DESCARRIES, Département de Pathologie et Biologie Cellulaire,
Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada
STEPHEN DOMBROWSKI, Department of Neurosurgery,
Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH
ANDREAS FAISSNER, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie du Developpment et de la
Regeneration, Strasbourg, France
ALASTAIR V. FERGUSON, Department of Physiology, Queen's University,
Kingston, Ontario, Canada
KJELL FUXE, Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
JEREMY GARWOOD, Laboratoire de Neurobiologie du Developpment et de la
Regeneration, Strasbourg, France
ALBERT GJEDDE, The Pathophysiology and Experimental Tomography Center,
Aarhus General Hospital, Aarhus C, Denmark
NICOLAS HECK, Centre National De la Recherche Scientifique, Strasbourg, France
DAMIR JANIGRO, Division of Cerebrovascular Research,
Department of Neurosurgery, Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH
ANDERS JANSSON, Department of Neuroscience, Division of Cellular
and Molecular Neurochemistry, Karolinska Institute, Stockholm, Sweden
ix