The Neglected Ape

296 Pages·1995·9.44 MB·English

by  G. Kaplan

The Neglected Ape
The Neglected Ape
Edited by
Ronald D. Nadler
Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center
Emory University
Atlanta, Georgia
Birute F. M. Galdikas
Orangutan Foundation International
Los Angeles, California
Lori K. Sheeran
California State University
Fullerton, California
and
Norm Rosen
University o/Southern California
Los Angeles, California
Springer Science+Business Media, LLC
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
The Neglected ape / edited by Ronald D. Nadler... [et al.].
p. cm.
Papers from the International Orangutan Conference: The Neglected Ape, held March 5-
7, 1994, in Fullerton, California and Papers from the Orangutan Population and Habitat Vi-
ability Analysis Workshop, held January 18-20, 1993, in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4899-1093-6
1. Orangutan—Congresses. 2. Wildlife conservation—Congresses. 3. Endangered species—
Congresses. I. Nadler, Ronald D. II. International Orangutan Conference: The Neglected
Ape (1994: Fullerton, Calif.).
QL737.P96N44 1996 95-53964
639.9'798842—dc20 CIP
Cover photograph by R. D. Nadler taken from "Socioendocrine interactions in great ape reproduction," by
C. E. Graham and R. D. Nadler. In: Socioendocrinology of Primate Reproduction
(T. E. Ziegler and F. B. Bercovitch, eds.).
© 1990 Wiley-Liss, New York. Reprinted by permission of John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Papers from the International Orangutan Conference: The Neglected Ape,
held March 5-7, 1994, in Fullerton, California
and
Papers from the Orangutan Population and Habitat Viability Analysis Workshop,
held January 18 — 20, 1993, in Medan, North Sumatra, Indonesia
ISBN 978-1-4899-1093-6 ISBN 978-1-4899-1091-2 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-1091-2
© 1995 Springer Science+Business Media New York
Originally published by Plenum Press, New York in 1995
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 1995
All rights reserved
10 987654321
No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording, or otherwise, without written
permission from the Publisher
PREFACE
The orangutan is the most highly endangered species of great ape. Orangutans are
threatened by deforestation, poaching, the illegal pet trade, and the isolation and fragmen
tation of dwindling wild populations. Their conservation is impeded by certain aspects of
their ecology (e.g., a rain forest habitat) and certain features of their life history (e.g., an
eight-to twelve-year interbirth interval). Added to the U.S. Endangered Species List in 1970,
the orangutan is now clearly on the road to extinction. The number of wild orangutans in
Borneo and Sumatra is currently estimated to have decreased to between 12,300 and 20,571
individuals. Only 2% of original orangutan habitat is protected and some of these areas are
now being destroyed. Clearly, attention to ecology, demography, censusing, rehabilitation,
and conservation is essential if the orangutan is to survive in the wild beyond the next century.
The protection of orangutans is a complex, multifaceted problem, involving such pressing
issues as human poverty, overpopulation, and the economic development of Southeast Asia.
Although the orangutan has been placed in Appendix I of the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), more orangutans were sold
illegally in Taiwan between 1990 and 1993 than are housed in all the world's zoos.
In the past, scientific and public attention has centered on the African apes. For this
reason, the sole Asian great ape, the orangutan, has been called the "neglected ape." Over
the last several years, however, this situation has been changing. In 1991, the government
ofIndonesia sponsored the International Great Ape Conference, which was held at Jakarta,
Pangkalan Bun and Camp Leakey, Kalimantan Tengah. As the last official event for "Visit
Indonesia Year 1991," this conference heralded a new era in awareness of the orangutan and
its plight as an endangered species. Following the International Great Ape Conference, the
first Population and Habitat Viability Analysis Workshop for orangutans was held in Medan,
North Sumatra, approximately a year later. The workshop concentrated on the status of wild
orangutans in Sumatra and Borneo, emphasizing the Sumatran population. Three working
groups established at the workshop made contributions to the Indonesian Orangutan Action
Plan, a plan designed to ensure the survival of orangutans in their natural habitats. The
following year, an international conference entitled, "Orangutans: The Neglected Ape" was
held at California State University, Fullerton. This conference was sponsored by the
Department of Anthropology and the Anthropology Student Association, California State
University, Fullerton, the Zoological Society of San Diego, and the Atlanta/Fulton County
Zoo, Inc. (Zoo Atlanta). The conference brought together some 200 academic scientists, zoo
personnel, field biologists, government officials, and concerned lay people from Europe,
Southeast Asia, and North America. Keynote addresses were presented by J. A. R. A. M. van
Hooff, J. Sugardjito, B. M. F. Galdikas, and T. L. Maple, all renowned for their contributions
to our understanding of orangutan biology and behavior. Over a three-day period, approxi
mately 56 presentations were delivered in 11 sessions, including conservation, census and
v
vi Preface
demography, genetics, trammg and husbandry, social behavior, physical anthropology,
cognition, veterinary medicine, enrichment and design, reproduction, and ecology.
As part of this new era of enlightenment, heightened media attention has broadened
the public's exposure to orangutans. Two books (Orangutans in Borneo and Reflections of
Eden) have recently been published, both aimed predominantly at the general public. Articles
concerning orangutans in newspapers and popular magazines have multiplied over the past
few years, while numerous orangutan documentaries have been featured on television.
This volume, a direct outgrowth of the Fullerton conference and the Medan work
shop, is comprised of chapters that continue and extend this era in which the orangutan has
now begun to receive the special attention and concern it requires. We selected authors to
include in this volume who address the more important issues related to the survival of
orangutans, their propagation in the wild and in captivity, and their unique contributions to
the science of primatology. Some of the chapters review the accomplishments in specific
research areas, but most present entirely new contributions of scientific data and analysis.
Section One of our edited volume provides an overview of the orangutan species, its
past and current status and its predicament, as seen through the eyes of philosophers,
conservationists, and a psychologist.
Section Two is devoted to orangutan conservation and recovery plans. Since the
1970s, attempts have been made to rehabilitate orangutans confiscated from animal dealers
and private individuals. Rehabilitation demands considerable dedication because the ex-cap
tives are often in poor physical and emotional condition - starved, abused, and unfamiliar
with the natural lifestyle of wild orangutans of similar age. The number of orangutans being
confiscated has not decreased and, therefore, rehabilitation efforts must be continued and
improved. Furthermore, destruction of orangutan habitat has continued to increase from the
1980s through the present time, boding ill for the occupants.
Section Three in this volume is devoted to demography. More sophisticated methods
than previously available are being applied to determine the current and projected number
and distribution of wild orangutans. These techniques include Geographic Information
Systems, which by displaying current forest distribution, vegetation type, and degree of
fragmentation, allow for more accurate estimates of orangutan population sizes and distri
butions. The Population and Habitat Viability Analysis VORTEX model for orangutans
projects population composition based on current demographic trends. Both of these tech
niques assist conservationists in more accurately identifying problem areas and in concen
trating on key issues. Most importantly, the information so acquired provides forest officials
with a more accurate appraisal of the possible consequences to the orangutan of converting
its forests to farms, roads, and lumber.
In Section Four, research results are presented from the two locations where long
term field studies have been conducted, Tanjung Puting and Gunung Leuser. This section
includes a theoretical discussion of evolutionary contributions to the unusual social organi
zation of orangutans among the primates and two papers that document orangutan cognition
in free-ranging wild-born ex-captives.
Section Five is devoted to scientific research on the social and sexual behavior,
reproduction and physical development of orangutans and to their maintenance and propa
gation in captivity. The issues considered here enhance our scientific understanding of
orangutan behavior and physiology and contribute experimental evidence for hypotheses
derived from naturalistic observations in the wild. Hypotheses regarding reproductive
strategies and mate choice, in particular, are susceptible to testing in a laboratory setting with
experimental control over extraneous activities. Modern approaches to reproduction and
captive management of orangutans are described by investigators in the forefront of their
areas of specialization. The data can be applied to the furtherance of captive breeding
Preface vii
programs, the improvement of captive facilities and the interpretation of data gathered from
wild orangutans.
When all is said and done, we cannot be said to fully understand orangutans until we
have studied and described their behavioral, ecological, and evolutionary complexities. We
edited this volume to highlight current research and knowledge of the orangutan as a species
in all its magnificent variability. We hope that this endeavor will help galvanize increased
efforts on behalf of what was once the "neglected ape."
We thank all the authors who contributed chapters to this volume, Barbara McElduff
for secretarial assistance and the Yerkes Regional Primate Research Center of Emory
University for support (National Institutes of Health Grant No. RR-00165 from the National
Center for Research Resources).
The Editors
CONTENTS
Section One - Orangutan: Man of the Forest
Introduction to Section One .............................................. .
1. Of Human Fear and Indifference: The Plight of the Orangutan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
G. Kaplan and L. Rogers
2. The Neglected Ape?: NATO and the Imminent Extinction of Our Close Relative .. l3
H. D. Rijksen
3. The Impact of Socioeconomic Decisions on the Status of the Orangutan and
Other East Asian Fauna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 23
A. A. Eudey
4. Orangutans, Science, and Collective Reality ............................. 29
A. L. Rose
Section Two - Conservation, Translocation, and Rehabilitation
Introduction to Section Two ............................................... 41
5. Conservation of Orangutans: Threats and Prospects. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 45
J. Sugardjito
6. Capture of Wild Orangutans by Drug Immobilization ...................... 51
L. K. Hiong, 1. B. Sale, and P. M. Andau
7. Rehabilitation Centers: Their Struggle, Their Future ....................... 61
I. Lardeux-Gilloux
8. A New Method for Rehabilitation of Orangutans in Indonesia: A First Overview. .. 69
W. T. M. Smits, Heriyanto, and W. S. Ramono
ix
x Contents
Section Three - Orangutan Demography and Population and Habitat Viability
Analysis
Introduction to Section Three . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 79
9. Introduction to the Orangutan Population and Habitat Viability Analysis
(PHVA) Workshop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 81
K. Soemarna, W. Ramono, and R. Tilson
10. Using GIS to Evaluate Habitat Risk to Wild Populations of Sumatran
Orangutans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 85
T. Faust, R. Tilson, and U. S. Seal
11. Orangutan Life History and VORTEX Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 97
M. Leighton, U. S. Seal, K. Soemarna, Adjisasmito, M. Wijaya,
T. Mitra Setia, G. Shapiro, L. Perkins, K. Traylor-Holzer, and R. Tilson
12. Estimates of Orangutan Distribution and Status in Sumatra .................. 109
C. P. van Schaik, S. Poniran, S. Utami, M. Griffiths, S. Djojosudharmo,
T. Mitra Setia, 1. Sugardjito, H. D. Rijksen, U. S. Seal, T. Faust,
K. Traylor-Holzer, and R. Tilson
13. Estimates of Orangutan Distribution and Status in Borneo .................. 117
H. D. Rijksen, W. Ramono, J. Sugardjito, A. Lelana, M. Leighton,
W. Karesh, G. Shapiro, U. S. Seal, K. Traylor-Holzer, and R. Tilson
14. Conservation Action Plan for Orangutans in Indonesia ..................... 123
K. Soemarna, W. Ramono, S. Poniran, C. P. van Schaik, H. D. Rijksen,
M. Leighton, D. Sajuthi, A. Lelana, W. Karesh, M. Griffiths, U. S. Seal,
K. Traylor-Holzer, and R. Tilson
15. Population Estimates and Habitat Preferences of Orangutans Based on Line
Transects of Nests .............................................. 129
C. P. van Schaik, A. Priatna, and D. Priatna
Section Four - Social and Cognitive Bahavior
Introduction to Section Four ............................................... 149
16. The Orangutan: A Social Outsider: A Socio-Ecological Test Case ............. 153
1. A. R. A. M. van Hooff
17. Social and Reproductive Behavior of Wild Adolescent Female Orangutans ..... 163
B. M. F. Galdikas
18. Behavioral Changes in Wild Male and Female Sumatran Orangutans (Pongo
pygmaeus ahelii) during and following a Resident Male Take-Over ...... 183
S. Utami and T. Mitra Setia
19. Imitation and Tool Use in Rehabilitant Orangutans ........................ 191
A. E. Russon and B. M. F. Galdikas
Contents xi
20. Attentiveness in Orangutans within the Sign Learning Context ............... 199
G. Shapiro and B. M. F. Galdikas
Section Five - Basic Science and Captive Maintenance
Introduction to Section Five ............................................... 213
21. Follicle Stimulation and Ovum Collection in the Orangutan ................. 217
C. S. Asa, S. 1. Silber, 1. Porton, F. Fischer, K. Lenehan, M. Deters,
R. Junge, 1. Hicks, and R. C. Cohen
22. Sexual Behavior of Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus): Basic and Applied
Implications ................................................... 223
R. D. Nadler
23. Proximity, Contact, and Play Interactions of Zoo-Living Juvenile and Adult
Orangutans, with Focus on the Adult Male .......................... 239
E. L. Zucker and S. C. Thibaut
24. A Brief Review of Studies of Orangutan Morphology and Development with a
Discussion of Their Relevancy to Physical Anthropology .............. 251
L. A. Winkler
25. Genetic Variability in Orangutans ...................................... 267
C. Muir, B. M. F. Galdikas, and A. T. Beckenbach
26. Doing It Naturally: Reproduction in Captive Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus) .... 273
R. Markham
27. Integrating Needs in Great Ape Accommodation: Sumatran Orangutan (Pongo
pygmaeus abelii) "Home-Habitat" at the Jersey Wildlife Preservation
Trust ......................................................... 279
J. J. C. Mallinson and J. B. Carroll
Index ................................................................. 293