Table Of ContentThe Need for Critical
Thinking and the
fi
Scienti c Method
http://taylorandfrancis.com
The Need for Critical
Thinking and the
fi
Scienti c Method
Finlay MacRitchie
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Names:MacRitchie,Finlay,author.
Title:Criticalthinkingandthescientificmethod/FinlayMacRitchie.
Description:BocaRaton:Taylor&Francis,2018.|Includesbibliographical
references.
Identifiers:LCCN2017059910|ISBN9780815367758(pbk.:acid-freepaper)|
ISBN9780815368151(hardback:acid-freepaper)
Subjects:LCSH:Science--Methodology.|Science--Socialaspects.|
Criticalthinking.
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Contents
Preface.................................................................................................................xi
About the author..............................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................1
Part 1:Common misunderstandings ofthe scientific method.....................1
The topic ofdebate mustbe defined unambiguously..............................1
Atrue scientist mustbe detached...............................................................2
Ascientific theory can never be proven beyond doubt...........................2
Separate observations that are consistent withatheory
do notcorrespond toadditional confirmation..........................................3
Refutability as acriterion for evaluating ascientific theory....................3
Consensus is nota criterion forthe validity of atheory.........................4
The illusion ofmodeling...............................................................................4
Part 2:General introduction..............................................................................4
The range ofcapacity forcritical thinking.................................................5
Distinction between science andpseudoscience.......................................6
Transition fromdogmatic tocritical thinking...........................................7
Howthis relates toanthropogenic global warming.................................8
Faults inapplication ofthe scientific method............................................8
Absence ofscientific thinking inpolitical debate......................................9
Summarizing thoughts.....................................................................................10
Chapter 2 Thescientific method................................................................13
The problem of demarcation...........................................................................14
Notable theories of theearly twentieth century..........................................14
Comparisons ofthe different theories...........................................................15
Guidelines forevaluating theories.................................................................16
Refutability as the criterion for demarcation................................................16
Probability and informative content..............................................................17
Conjectures and refutations............................................................................18
Criteria forevaluating atheory......................................................................18
The need forscience to grow(or toprogress)..............................................18
v
vi Contents
Requirements forprogress ofscience............................................................19
Dangers toprogress..........................................................................................19
References..........................................................................................................20
Chapter 3 Howthe lack ofscientific inputimpacts
researchorganizations...............................................................21
Australian ministers incharge ofscience portfolio.....................................21
The contribution ofthe Honorable R.G. Casey............................................22
A short history ofCSIRO after its formation...............................................23
Changes resulting from reviews of CSIRO...................................................23
Howscientific knowledge is acquired...........................................................24
Howmanagerial controlpurports todrive science.....................................25
Comparison of thetwo approaches...............................................................26
Howhas the CSIRO fared?.............................................................................27
The requirement to obtainaproportion ofthe research funding.............27
Effect ofthese changes on theworkplace environment..............................28
The climate change controversy.....................................................................29
The lackof scientific thinking in thedebate.................................................29
Errors in application of science.......................................................................29
Balanced debate can still occur.......................................................................30
Expansion ofthe managerial approach.........................................................30
The present workingenvironment.................................................................31
The Victims ofCSIRO blog site......................................................................31
References..........................................................................................................32
Chapter 4 Howcould thishave happened?............................................33
A careerin science............................................................................................33
Effect ofthe requirement to procure funding...............................................34
Why do notmore scientists enter politics?...................................................34
Arescientists different?....................................................................................35
Howscience of excellence canstill be achieved..........................................36
Howcould it have happened?........................................................................37
Making decisions without thebasic knowledge..........................................37
Howimportant scientific discoveries are made...........................................38
Effect oforganizational changeson research................................................38
Where angels fear totread..............................................................................39
Where wasthe scientific leadership?.............................................................39
Why do toxic work environments form in scienceorganizations?...........40
Howdo toxic workplace environments arise?.............................................40
The control freak...............................................................................................41
The narcissist.....................................................................................................41
The serial bully..................................................................................................42
The psychopath.................................................................................................42
Whatis a psychopath?.....................................................................................43
Contents vii
Characteristics of psychopaths.......................................................................43
Howare psychopaths identified?...................................................................44
The Hare checklist............................................................................................44
An example ofpsychopathic behavior..........................................................45
The legalargument...........................................................................................46
Psychopaths inscience.....................................................................................46
Whatis the origin of psychopathic behavior?..............................................47
Corporate psychopaths....................................................................................47
Howdo psychopaths attain high positions in corporations?....................48
Coping with psychopathic behavior..............................................................48
Howit happened..............................................................................................49
Notes...................................................................................................................50
References..........................................................................................................50
Chapter 5 Howthe media influences publicthinking..........................53
The myth ofthe lemmings..............................................................................53
The invasion ofIraqin 2003............................................................................54
The Chilean military coup of1973.................................................................55
Howcan wedecide what is thetruth?.........................................................56
Contrast between submissions to scientific journals
and tothe mainstreampress...........................................................................57
Issues that seem tobe ignored by themainstream media.........................58
Agenda 21orsustainable development........................................................58
British immigration since early1980s............................................................59
The opinion writers..........................................................................................60
Howa democratic system canbreak down.................................................62
The rise ofsocial media...................................................................................63
Howto think foryourself................................................................................63
References..........................................................................................................64
Chapter 6 Dangerstoprogress in science................................................65
Dangers toprogress of sciencesuggested byPopper.................................65
Obsession with number ofpublications........................................................66
Quantity and quality in scientific publications............................................67
Citations and impact factors formeasuring merit.......................................68
Lackof citations topublications.....................................................................69
An excess of poor-quality research................................................................69
Negative flow-on effects from mediocre research.......................................70
Notmore scientists but more good scientists...............................................71
Effects ofexternal and internal forces............................................................72
Misconduct in science......................................................................................72
Moresubtle forms of unethical behavior......................................................73
Cases...................................................................................................................73
Conclusions from these cases..........................................................................74
viii Contents
Fraud inscience may be moreprevalent than thought..............................74
Misallocation ofcredit......................................................................................75
Maintaining theintegrity ofscience...............................................................75
Authoritarianism...............................................................................................75
The earth as thecenter ofthe universe.........................................................76
Lysenkoism........................................................................................................76
Managerialism...................................................................................................77
References..........................................................................................................78
Chapter 7 Applying scientific thinking tosome current
controversies...............................................................................79
Climate change..................................................................................................79
Observations consistent with previous onescannot be claimed
asconfirmations................................................................................................80
The weakness ofmodeling..............................................................................80
The medieval warmperiod.............................................................................81
The Great Barrier Reef.....................................................................................82
Effects ofacidification of theocean................................................................83
The chemistry ofcarbon dioxide dissolution...............................................84
A critical examination is needed of thearguments for andagainst.........84
The saturated fat controversy.........................................................................85
Brief summaryofthe research on theeffects of saturated fats..................85
Problems forfood processors..........................................................................86
The problem of transfats................................................................................86
Replacement oftrans fats................................................................................87
The role ofcholesterol......................................................................................87
LDL and HDLcholesterol...............................................................................87
A critical examination of thesaturated fat–heart disease hypothesis......88
Epidemiological research versus clinical studies.........................................88
Selection bias.....................................................................................................88
Encroachment ofbureaucracy........................................................................89
Status ofthe hypothesis...................................................................................89
The advent ofgluten-free foods.....................................................................90
Celiac disease andgluten intolerance............................................................90
The need forgluten-free foods........................................................................90
Explosion ofgluten-free foods........................................................................91
The downside ofgluten-free diets..................................................................91
Genetic engineering..........................................................................................92
The possibilities forgenetic manipulation....................................................92
Gene drives........................................................................................................93
CRISPR...............................................................................................................93
Weighing the risks............................................................................................93
Contents ix
Whatare the risks?...........................................................................................94
A critical examination of thecontroversy.....................................................95
References..........................................................................................................95
Chapter 8 Implementing scientific thinking and critical analysis......97
Research scientists in federalparliament......................................................98
Howto introduce more scientific thinking.................................................100
Changes needed inthe education system...................................................100
The role ofwonder in childhood education...............................................101
Teaching withmagic......................................................................................102
Creativity..........................................................................................................103
Introducing critical analysis..........................................................................103
Some simple examples...................................................................................104
Deflection ofan issue.....................................................................................105
Putting labels on opponents..........................................................................106
The straw manargument..............................................................................106
Could have or might have............................................................................106
The prism of ideology....................................................................................107
The influence ofcultural background on thecapacity
forscientific thinking......................................................................................107
References........................................................................................................107
Chapter 9 Bringing it together.................................................................109
Scientific/critical thinking..............................................................................109
The scientific/critical versus the dogmaticapproach................................110
The diminished roleof scientists..................................................................111
The effects onscientific excellence................................................................112
Howscientific organizations can be infiltrated by destroyers.................113
The pros and cons ofdemocracies...............................................................113
Howcan wedetermine ifaproposed newlaw is better
than the lawit replaces?................................................................................114
It’s theelectorate, stupid!...............................................................................114
The media........................................................................................................116
Howpublic opinion canbe influenced by themedia...............................116
Opinion writers...............................................................................................117
Dangers tothe progress ofscience...............................................................117
The lackof imagination or realinterest......................................................118
Howmanagerialism erodes the standard ofscientific research..............118
Isscience progressing?...................................................................................118
If scienceis not advancing as itshould, what is the cause?....................119
Howscientific progress canbe eroded by authoritarianism...................120
Flawsin the application ofthinking to some current issues...................120
