Table Of Contentthe natural history of flowers
Gideon Lincecum Nature & Environment Series
Sponsored by Jerry B. Lincecum and Peggy A. Redshaw
the
natural
history
of
flower s
Michael Fogden & Patricia Fogden
TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY PRESS | College Station
Copyright © 2018
by Michael Fogden & Patricia Fogden
All rights reserved
First edition
This paper meets the requirements
of ANSI/NISO Z39.48–1992 (Permanence of Paper).
Binding materials have been chosen for durability.
Manufactured in China
through Four Color Print Group
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Fogden, Michael, author. | Fogden, Patricia, author.
Title: The natural history of flowers / Michael Fogden and Patricia Fogden.
Other titles: Gideon Lincecum nature and environment series.
Description: First edition. | College Station : Texas A&M University Press,
[2018] | Series: Gideon Lincecum Nature and Environment Series | Includes
bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017057887| ISBN 9781623496449 (book/cloth : alk. paper) |
ISBN 9781623496456 (e-book)
Subjects: LCSH: Flowers. | Human-plant relationships. | Animal-plant relationships.
Classification: LCC QK653 .F64 2018 | DDC 582.13--dc23 LC record available at
https://lccn.loc.gov/2017057887
contents
Preface, vii Bromeliaceae (Bromeliad Family), 139
Acknowledgments, ix Cecropiaceae: Cecropia, 143
chapter 1. Flowers and Humans, 1 Chloranthaceae: Hedyosmum, 144
chapter 2. The Evolution of Flowering Clusiaceae: Clusia and Symphonia, 145
Plants, 10 Coriariaceae: Coriaria, 149
chapter 3. Flowers, 13 Ericaceae (Heath Family), 149
chapter 4. Pollination Syndromes, 38 Fabaceae: Inga, Calliandra, Erythrina, and
chapter 5. Pollinator Behavior, 70 Mucuna, 151
chapter 6. Mimicry and Deceit in Flowers, 72 Heliconiaceae: Heliconia, 155
chapter 7. Flower Predators, Nectar Thieves, Lauraceae (Avocado Family), 159
and Flower Defenses, 80 Loranthaceae and Viscaceae (Mistletoe
Families), 161
chapter 8. Antipollinators, 84
Marcgraviaceae (Shingle Plant Family), 164
chapter 9. The Flower’s Final Act: Seed
Production and Dispersal, 86 Melastomataceae (Melastome Family), 167
chapter 10. Seed Dispersal Syndromes, 92 Moraceae: Ficus (Fig Family), 170
chapter 11. Fruit Spoilers and Seed Orchidaceae (Orchid Family), 175
Predators, 124 Passifloraceae: Passiflora (Passion Flower
Family), 182
chapter 12. The Seasonality of Flowering and
Fruiting, 130 Rubiaceae (Coffee and Quinine Family), 186
chapter 13. Pollination, Seed Dispersal, and Siparunaceae: Siparuna, 190
Coevolution, 133 Solanaceae (Potato and Tobacco Family), 191
chapter 14. Selected Neotropical Plant Families, Glossary, 197
Genera, and Species, 136 References, 201
Alstroemeriaceae: Bomarea, 136 Index, 207
Bignoniaceae: Hadroanthus, Tabebuia, and
Cydista, 137
Figures 1 and 2. Good winter rains produce
spectacular displays of daisies and other
flowers in Namaqualand, South Africa.
The colors, shapes, scents, and other
characteristics of the flowers have evolved to
attract pollinators.
preface
F
LOWERS and their final product—fruits ficult because there are about 260,000 species of
and seeds—have played an important flowering plants (angiosperms) in about 490 fami-
role in human activities for thousands of lies worldwide. Our object is simply to discuss
years. Even so, many of us have given little and illustrate a representative sample of flowering
thought to the real purpose of flowers—to and fruiting strategies as well as the interactions
the reasons for their beauty and structure, to the sig- between plants and their pollinators and dispers-
nificance of their colors and smells, or to their func- ers. We have concentrated on plants that we have
tion in the life and survival of plants. Why are flow- found to be photogenic and those that have inter-
ers colorful? Why do some flowers have a heavenly esting relationships with pollinators and seed dis-
fragrance while others smell like dung or rotting car- persers. Our coverage is biased toward Central
casses? Why are blackberries sweet and juicy? And and South America but also includes material and
why are nuts encased in hard shells? The answers photographs from North America, Europe, Africa,
to these questions are the subject of this book. Southeast Asia, and Australia. Examples from Costa
Together, flowers, fruits, and seeds enhance a plant’s Rica and Ecuador, where we have lived for many
chances of survival by contributing to two vital pro- years, feature prominently throughout. Almost all
cesses that help spread a plant’s genes—cross- the photographs were taken in natural habitats and
pollination (which promotes variation and diversi- depict natural behavior by pollinators and seed dis-
fication) and seed dispersal. Some flowers are pol- persers as well as nectar thieves and seed predators.
linated by wind or water, but most, especially in More comprehensive, academic surveys are available
the tropics, are designed to attract bees, butterflies, for both pollination and seed dispersal, some of the
birds, bats, or other pollinators (figs. 1 and 2). Many most useful being Diversity and Evolutionary Biology
fruits, too, are designed to attract animals to dis- of Tropical Flowers (Endress 1994); The Natural
perse the seeds that carry their genes (figs. 3 and 4). History of Pollination (Proctor, Yeo, and Lack 1996);
The diverse and sometimes bizarre ways by which Pollination and Floral Ecology (Willmer 2011); and
flowers and fruits have persuaded animals to carry Principles of Dispersal in Higher Plants (van der Pijl
their pollen and seeds to and fro are described and 1972). We also recommend Peter Bernhardt’s The
illustrated in the following chapters. Rose’s Kiss (1999), which is an entertaining explora-
This account is not a comprehensive survey of tion of the biology of flowers. References for all five
pollination and seed dispersal. That would be dif- titles are included in the reference list.
] CHAPTER ONE
are now placed in a natural group called the eudi-
cots, while most of the remainder are in a group
called magnoliids, which retain the characteristics of
more primitive angiosperms.
Although common names have no standing
among professional biologists, they are extremely
important for amateur naturalists. We have there-
fore used well-established English common names
Figures 3 and 4. Similarly, the characteristics of fruits for plants and animals whenever possible but have
have evolved to facilitate seed dispersal. These lurid
added scientific names for species and genera when
blue berries (Psychotria) have evolved to attract birds, as
first mentioned or whenever we feel that extra clar-
has the wild thimbleberry (Rubus rosifolius) in the bill of
ity is needed. And we have used scientific names for
the resplendent quetzal (Pharomachrus mocinno).
the tropical plants and animals for which no English
names exist. We have generally not used scientific
For the taxonomy and scientific names of flow- names when referring to groups of plants that are
ering plants at the family level, we have followed very familiar—for example, oaks, poppies, butter-
Flowering Plants of the Neotropics (Smith et al. cups, and evening primroses—nor for familiar ani-
2004). At the level of genus and species, we have mal groups—for example, elephants, howler mon-
followed local floras or enlisted the help of bota- keys, toucans, jays, tanagers, bumblebees, hoverflies,
nists with expert local knowledge. However, note and hawkmoths. We have avoided technical botani-
that the classification and taxonomy of plants is not cal terms as much as possible, but a good number
static. Scientific names change regularly as bota- are unavoidable. Definitions for those can be found
nists advance their understanding of plant relation- in the glossary. We have also avoided discussing the
ships. Note specifically that recent studies by the chemistry of flower pigments and scents. For those
Angiosperm Phylogeny Group show that monocots interested in knowing more about these subjects,
form a natural monophyletic group but that dicots The Natural History of Pollination and Pollination and
do not and have been split. The majority of dicots Floral Ecology are good starting points.
acknowledgments
I
N WRITING this book and taking the photo- Masters, Francisco Morales, Greg Murray, Shahid
graphs, we have benefited from the research of Naeem, Piotr Naskrecki, Nick Owens, the late Ted
numerous biologists, many of whom are cited Parker, Richard Parsons, Christopher Perrins, Alan
in the bibliography. Many others—biologists Pounds, George Powell, Jack Putz, Peter Raven,
and friends—have generously provided iden- Sarah Sargent, Mary Seely, the late David Snow, Gary
tifications of plants and insects, background infor- Stiles, Marco Tschapke, Orlando Vargas, Freddie
mation, accommodation, or other logistical help. Villao, the late Otto von Helverson, Nathaniel
We are grateful and indebted to the following: John Wheelwright, York Winter, Martin and Barbara
Atwood, Gabriel Barboza, John Blake, Bill Busby, the Woodcock, and Willow Zuchowski.
late John and Doris Campbell, David and Deborah We are also grateful for comments made by two
Clark, Robert Colwell, Eladio Cruz, Philip DeVries, anonymous reviewers who read and commented on
Jan Feil, Peter Feinsinger, Adrian Forsyth, Robin the manuscript and for the professional expertise of
Foster, Gordon and Juta Frankie, Lawrence Gilbert, the editors and designers at Texas A&M University
the late Luis Diego Gomez, the late Wolf Guindon, Press. We wish to give special thanks to acquisitions
William Haber, Winnie Hallwachs, Barry Hammel, editor Stacy Eisenstark (our first contact at Texas
Hank Howe, Stephen Hubble, Carol Hughes, A&M University Press), project editor Pat Clabaugh,
Daniel Janzen, Lou Jost, Richard Laval, Douglas and copyeditor Laurel Anderton for her sympathetic
Levey, Bette Loiselle, Jack Longino, Karen and Alan editing.
