Table Of ContentMethod
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Message
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Jewish Apocalyptic
D. S. RUSSELL
THlE MIETHOD
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MESSAGlE Of JJlEWllSH
AJPOCAl YJPTllC
200 Be - AD 100
The Westminster Press
PHILADELPHIA
THE OLD TESTAMENT LIBRARY
General Editors
PETER ACKROYD, University of London
JAMES BARR, Oxford University
BERNHARD W. ANDERSON, Princeton Theological Seminary
JAMES L. MAYS, Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, Virginia
Honorary General Editor
JOHN BRIGHT, Union Theological Seminary, Richmond, Virginia
Copyright © SCM Press Ltd 1964
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 64-18683
I'UBLISHED BY THE WESTMINSTER PRESS•
PHILADELPHIA 7. PENNSYLVANIA
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
15 14 13 12 11 10 9
CONTENTS
Prifac, 9
Abbreviations "
Part One
THE NATURE AND IDENTITY OF JEWISH
APOCALYPTIC
I THE MILIEU OF APOCALYPTIC 15
1 The historical and cultural background 15
2 Judaism and apocalyptic 20
3 Apocalyptic and the Jewish parties 23
4 The 'popularity' of apocalyptic 28
5 Christianity and apocalyptic 33
II THE APOCALYPTIC LITERATURE 36
I Apocalyptic and 'sectarian' books 36
2 The Qumran texts 40
3 The literature of the second and first centuries BC 48
4 The literature of the first century AD 58
5 Some lost pseudepigraphic and apocalyptic books 66
Part Two
THE METHOD OF JEWISH APOCALYPTIC
III THE DECLINE OF PROPHECY AND THE RISE OF
APOCALYPTIC n
I The decline of prophecy 73
2 Oral tradition and apocalyptic tradition 82
3 Apocalyptic, embedded in prophecy 88
4 Apocalyptic, a development of prophecy 92
5 Apocalyptic and the predictive side of prophecy g6
6 A message ethically based 100
IV CHARACTERISTICS OF THE APOCALYPTIC
WRITINGS 104
I Some general marks of apocalyptic 104-
2 Esoteric in character 107
3 Literary in form 118
4- Symbolic in language 122
5 Pseudonymous in authorship 127
V THE APOCALYPTIC CONSCIOUSNESS 140
I Physiology in its relation to psychology 141
2 The significance of the use of the word 'soul' 145
3 The significance of the use of the word 'spirit' 148
5
6 CONTENTS
4 The influence of Greek thought on ideas relating to the creation and
nature of man 151
5 The influence of Hebrew thought on the conception of the unity of
personality 153
VI APOCALYPTIC INSPIRATION 158
1 lnspiration as 'possession' 159
2 Media of revelation 161
3 Dreams, visions and auditions 162
4 Evidence of genuine psychical experience 164
5 Translation 166
6 Preparations for psychical experience 169
Additional note:
A. The apocalyptist and the priest 173
B. The apocalyptist and the sage 175
VII APOCALYPTIC AND THE INTERPRETATION Of
PROPHECY 178
I The background of biblical exegesis 178
2 Unfulfilled prophecy 181
3 The method of apocalyptic interpretation 183
4 The influence of prophetic language and thought 187
5 Conscious adaptation of prophecy ~9'
6 Allegorical arithmetic 19~
Part Three
THE MESSAGE OF JEWISH APOCALYPTIC
VIII HUMAN HISTORY AND DIVINE CONTROL
1 The nature of time and eternity
2 Time and the recurrence of events
3 The unity of history
4 History systematically arranged
5 History determined beforehand
IX ANGELS AND DEMONS
I The world of spirits
2 The growth of angelology
3 Guardian angels of the nations
4 Fallen angels and the origin of evil
5 Satan and his demons
6 The influence of foreign thought
X THE TIME OF THE END
I 'The hour is at hand'
2 The new eschatology
3 Signs of the End
4 Antichrist
5 Creation and re-creation
7
CONTENTS
XI THE MESSIANIC KINGDOM r285
I The idea of the kingdom r285
2 The kingdom on this earth 286
3 The kingdom in heaven r290
4 A tempprary kingdom followed by 'the age to come' r291
5 The salvation of Israel and the judgment of the Gentiles r297
XII THE TRADITIONAL MESSIAH 304
I The term 'Messiah' and its Old Testament background 304
2 The figure of the Messiah in the apocalyptic literature 308
3 The Levitic Messiah 310
4 The Davidic Messiah 316
5 The Messiah and the Dead Sea Scrolls 319
XIII THE SON OF MAN 324
I The literary sources of the expression 'Son of Man' 324
2 Son of Man as Messiah 331
3 Messiah, Son of Man and Suffering Servant 334
4 The Son of Man and the biblical tradition 340
5 A mythological interpretation 345
6 A corporate interpretation 350
XIV LIFE AFTFR DEATH 353
1 The Old Testament background 353
2 The idea of Sheol in the apocalyptic writings 357
3 The origin and development of the resurrection belief 366
4 The resurrection body 374
5 The last judgment 379
6 The influence offoreign thought 385
Appendix I: Christian lists of Jewish apocryphal books 391
Appendix II: A list of psychological terms in the apocalyptic literature 396
Bibliography 406
Index of Subjects 431
Index of Authors 443
Index of Texts 446
PREFACE
T
WENTY YEARS AGO, as a research student at Oxford, I was
introduced to the Jewish apocalyptic literature by my honoured
tutor and College Principal, H. Wheeler Robinson, whose in
fluence can be detected in the following pages, particularly in those
dealing with the 'psychology' ofi nspiration and of the apocalyptic con
sciousness. This introduction led to a deepening appreciation of what
the apocalyptic writers were trying to say and a desire to understand
more fully not only the times and circumstances in which they lived,
but also the beliefs they held and the hopes they cherished. In 1960
I attempted an appreciation of their writings in a small volume
entitled Between the. Testaments. Its kindly reception has encouraged
me to deal with the same subject at much greater length in the hope
that greater justice may be done to their work.
For Jews and Christians alike this whole literature is of the utmost
significance because of its claim to be 'the child of prophecy'. But
for Christians it has an additional significance. Not only is it, in its
teaching, a continuation of the Old Testament, it is also an anticipa
tion of the New Testament. Christians believe that the New Testa
ment is a continuation and fulfilment of the Old Testament, but
the historical connection between the two, in respect of certain
doctrines at any rate, is not always clear. The apocalyptic literature
helps to bridge this gap and illustrates certain significant develop
ments in religious belief, especially of an eschatological and messianic
kind, which took place during the vital years between the two Testa
ments. It is not the purpose of this book to work out the theological
implications of these doctrines for New Testament study. But it is
hoped that the material here provided will be found useful for such
a task.
It has to be remembered that the apocalyptic writers were not
systematic theologians; they were not interested in exact definitions
of faith, and logic was perhaps one of their lesser virtues! They were
rather visionaries and poets who expressed their convictions in terms
of traditional imagery, at once highly imaginary and often obscure.
They were constantly inconsistent with themselves and also with the
writings of other men of like mind. They tried to explain the in
explicable, to express in mere words the inexpressible mysteries of
God. Inconsistency, in such circumstances, is a minor sin. Despite
9
10 PREFACE
the hazards involved, an attempt will be made in Part III of this
book to present as systematically as possible their teaching on several
of the more important aspects of their faith.
Twenty years ago the Dead Sea Scrolls had not been heard of.
Life then for the student of this period was much more simple-but
much less exciting! A vast amount of information has suddenly
become available, much of which brings into sharp focus beliefs and
practices among the Jews which at best were formerly blurred and
obscure. Many obscurities remain; but a clearer and more accurate
view of this aU-important period is now more possible than ever
before. This is not a book about the Scrolls, nor do I claim to be an
authority on this literature; but no study of the inter-testamental
period is possible without a careful assessment of these texts. Some of
them obviously belong to the class ofliterature known as 'apocalyptic'
and so supplement the already-known apocalyptic books; others,
whilst not sharing the distinctive marks of apocalyptic, nevertheless
cast considerable light on the historical, cultural and religious situa
tion within which the apocalyptic literature was produced and must
be taken into account.
My indebtedness to many scholars is evident throughout the
entire book, but special mention must be made of Emeritus Pro
fessor H. H. Rowley, whose friendly interest and ready help have
been a constant encouragement to me. Not only has he read through
the final draft and made most useful suggestions, he has also gone to
considerable trouble in supplying me with books from his own library
and in answering queries I have raised with him. Professor P. R.
Ackroyd has likewise made a number of helpful suggestions for which
I would express my deep gratitude. I must thank my colleague,
the Rev. W. E. Hough, for reading through the manuscript in its
completed form and for undertaking the arduous task of compiling
the indexes, and also Mrs Jessie Davies for the very considerable help
she has given in the preparation of the manuscript. For the under
standing and patience of my colleagues and students and also of my
wife and family throughout the period of the book's preparation I
wish to express my grateful thanks.
Rawdon D. S. RUSSELL
ABBREVIATIONS
AJT American Journal of Theology
BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research
BJRL Bulletin of the John Rylands Library
BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift fur die AlttestamentLiche Wissenschaft
EB Encyclopaedia Biblica
ERE Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
ET The Expository Times
HDB Hastings's Dictionary of the Bible
HTR The Harvard Theological Review
ICC International Critical Commentary
JBL Journal of Biblical Literature
JE Jewish Encyclopedia
JQR Jewish Quarter{Y Review
JTS Journal of Theological Studies
LXX Septuagint
NT Novum Testamentum
NTS New Testament Studies
RB Revue Biblique
REJ Revue des Etudes Juives
SJT Scottish Journal of Theology
TLZ Theologische Literatur zeitung
TZ Theologische Zeitschrift
VT Vetus Testamentum
ZAW Zeitschrift fur die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft
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