Table Of ContentLecture Notes in Energy 68
Kapil Narula
The Maritime
Dimension of
Sustainable
Energy Security
Lecture Notes in Energy
Volume 68
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Kapil Narula
The Maritime Dimension
of Sustainable Energy
Security
123
KapilNarula
Institute for Environmental Sciences(ISE)
University of Geneva
Geneva, Switzerland
ISSN 2195-1284 ISSN 2195-1292 (electronic)
Lecture Notesin Energy
ISBN978-981-13-1588-6 ISBN978-981-13-1589-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-13-1589-3
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I dedicate this book to
The Supreme Soul, for holding my hand
throughout this journey of life
My mother and father for their unconditional
love
My wife who has been a pillar of support and
strength
My children who I hope would grow up as
wonderful human beings
My extended family and friends for their
support
Myteachers,mentorsandcolleaguesfortheir
encouragement
To the indomitable spirit which shows that
everything is possible with faith, hard work
and determination
Preface
Energyisadriverofeconomicgrowth,andsupplyoflow-costenergyisoneofthe
important priorities for a country. The oil embargo imposed by Arab nations in
1973 became the starting point for discussions on energy security, and since then,
the term has caught the attention of politicians, analysts, energy planners and
economists alike. While the core concept of energy security deals with ‘the
availabilityofenergy ataffordableprices’,thequantificationof‘howmuchenergy
should be available’, ‘what is affordable’ and for ‘whom is it available and
affordable’issubjecttodifferentinterpretations.Astimeprogressed,otherconcerns
on reliability of energy supply, accessibility of energy resources, risks to energy
supply, military aspects of energy security, energy nationalism, energy interde-
pendence, energy services, robustness and resilience of energy systems, long-term
vs short-term aspects of energy security, energy inequity, economic impact of
disruption of energy supply lines and energy price shocks entered into the debate.
Thus,overtime,energysecurityhasevolvedtobecomeamultidimensionalconcept
that covers various perspectives, domains, disciplines and specializations.
Over the last couple of decades, environmental degradation and climate change
have led to global concerns on the continued use of fossil fuels. Realizing the
negative externalities caused by energy use, the focus of energy planners began to
shifttosustainableenergysources,loweringthedemandofenergyandeliminating
the wastage of energy. The notion of energy sustainability started colouring the
conceptofenergy securitythathadbecomeanumbrellatermtodiscussanyissues
related to energy supply, energy demand, environmental aspects related to energy
use and prices of energy. As the goal posts shifted to include energy sustainability
along with energy security, it has become necessary to introduce the concept of
‘sustainable energy security’ (SES) that amalgamates both these concerns.
‘Sustainable energy security’ (SES) is defined as ‘provisioning of uninterrupted
energyservices(shorttermandlongterm)inanaffordable,equitable,efficientand
environmentally benign manner’. This perspective accommodates the supply side,
the demand side and the three dimensions of sustainable development, viz. social,
economic and environmental, in its approach. SES has been proposed as the
vii
viii Preface
objectiveofenergypolicyofacountryasitachievestheobjectivesofbothenergy
security and energy sustainability together.
The maritime domain is inextricably linked with SES, but the current discourse
on maritime aspects of energy security is limited to protection of maritime energy
supply lines and the role of military in providing maritime security. However, the
maritime dimension of SES extends much beyond this limited interpretation as it
includes energy supply chains, energy trade, shipping, energy markets and various
other factors that have a strong maritime connect.
Apart from enabling energy trade, oceans are a source of both hydrocarbon
energy and marine renewable energy. This maritime dimension is often not given
enough attention, and planners continue to focus on land-based aspects of energy.
With technological improvements and lowering costs, harnessing renewable forms
of marine energy can lead to SES. The shipping industry is an enabler of energy
trade, and hence, it is also important that greenhouse gas emissions from shipping
are minimized in order to attain SES.
It was felt that the above-mentioned issues were discussed in isolated silos.
Energy planners were unaware of the maritime aspects such as characteristics of
ships,maritimesecurityandspecializedcomponentsofthemaritimeenergysupply
chains. On the other hand, maritime professionals and analysts who had a good
understanding of the maritime aspects were unaware of the big picture on energy
systems, challenges in energy transition, renewable energy from oceans and the
measures undertaken to lower emissions from shipping.
This book is written to bridge this gap and presents a holistic view of the
maritime dimension of SES. It is written for the general reader as well as students
who are undergoing a course in energy systems, maritime management, naval
studies andenergy sustainability.It wouldalso beofinterest totheenergy planner
and policymaker. The content is tailored to meet the intellectual curiosity of the
inquisitivereaderandintroducesvariousspecializedtopicsthataredealtinasimple
and concise manner. The book does not claim to be a reference manual, but it is
helpfulininitiatingthereadertovariousissuesandtopicsintheenergysecurityand
sustainabilityinthemaritimedomain.Thebookissubdividedintothreeparts.PartI
presentstheconceptofSESandtheglobalenergysystem,PartIIfocusesonenergy
trade and maritime dynamics, and Part III highlights oceans as harbingers of SES.
The maritime domain and sustainable energy are two critical aspects of the
twenty-first century which will shape the future of humanity. It is hoped that this
bookwouldfillinacritical gapintheunderstandingofthemaritime dimensionof
SES.
Geneva, Switzerland Kapil Narula
May 2018
Contents
Part I Concept of SES and Global Energy System
1 Energy Security and Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.2 Energy Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2.1 Definitions of Energy Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.2.2 Emergence of Concerns on Energy Security . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2.3 Salient Aspects of Energy Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Sustainable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.1 Definitions of Sustainable Energy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.2 Characteristics of Sustainable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.4 Sustainable Energy Security (SES). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.1 Relationship Between Energy Security and
Sustainability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
1.4.2 Energy System Framework. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.4.3 Definition and Characteristics of SES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4.4 Importance of SES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.5 Competing Dimensions of SES. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2 Global Energy System and Sustainable Energy Security . . . . . . . . . 23
2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2 Changing Characteristics of Energy System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.1 Primary Energy Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.2.2 Energy Conversion and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.2.3 Energy Demand. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.3 Resource Availability and Accessibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.1 Estimate of Fossil Fuel Reserves and R/P Ratio. . . . . . . . 30
2.3.2 Increasing Net Energy Import Dependence
and Energy Insecurity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
ix
x Contents
2.4 Affordability. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.1 Increasing Price of Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2.4.2 Increased Volatility in Energy Prices. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5 Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.5.1 Conversion Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.2 Electricity Distribution Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
2.5.3 End-Use Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6 Acceptability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.6.1 Growth in Global GHG Emissions and Its Impact . . . . . . 36
2.6.2 Share of Energy Sector in Global GHG Emissions. . . . . . 38
2.6.3 Energy Use and Local Environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.7 Energy Equity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7.1 Per Capita Energy Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.7.2 Lack of Clean Energy Access. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.8 Forecasts and Scenarios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.8.1 Total Primary Energy Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8.2 Relative Share of Primary Energy Consumption . . . . . . . 43
2.8.3 Global Energy Consumption for Different Sectors . . . . . . 44
2.8.4 Installed Electricity Generation Capacity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9 Other Concerns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9.1 Integration of Renewables in Electricity Grid
and Storage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.9.2 Emissions Constraints Post Paris Agreement . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.9.3 Sustainable Energy Security and Sustainable
Development Goals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.10 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Part II Energy Trade and Maritime Dynamics
3 Energy Supply Chains and the Maritime Domain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Energy Supply Chains for Fossil Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.1 Coal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.2 Crude Oil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.2.3 Natural Gas. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.3 Port Infrastructure for Energy Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.1 Coal Transportation Facilities in Ports. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.3.2 Oil Tanker Facilities in Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3.3 LNG Facilities in Ports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.4 Port Management and Efficient Port Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4.1 Port Productivity and Its Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.4.2 Integrated Planning and Multimodal Connectivity . . . . . . 69
3.4.3 Transshipment and Inland Waterway Connectivity. . . . . . 69
3.5 Conclusion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
