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Title: The Manóbos of Mindanáo
Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences, Volume XXIII, First Memoir
Author: John M. Garvan
Release Date: June 16, 2006 [eBook #18607]
Language: English
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MEMOIRS
OF THE
NATIONAL ACADEMY
OF SCIENCES
VOLUME XXIII
FIRST MEMOIR
UNITED STATES
GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE
WASHINGTON : 1931
For sale by the Superintendent of Documents, Washington, D.C. - - - - - - - - - - Price $1.00 (paper cover)
MEMOIRS OF THE NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
VOLUME XXIII
FIRST MEMOIR
- - - - - -
THE MANÓBOS OF MINDANÁO
BY
JOHN M. GARVAN
PRESENTED TO THE ACADEMY AT THE ANNUAL MEETING, 1929
THE MANÓBOS OF MINDANÁO
BY
JOHN M. GARVAN
CONTENTS
PART I. DESCRIPTIVE
CHAPTER I. Classification and geographical distribution of Manóbos and other peoples in eastern Mindanáo
Explanation of terms
"Eastern Mindanáo"
The term "tribe"
Present use of the word "Manóbo"
The derivation and original application of the word "Manóbo"
Geographical distribution of the Manóbos in eastern Mindanáo
In the Agúsan Valley
On the eastern side of the Pacific Cordillera
On the peninsula of San Agustin
The Mamánuas, or Negritos, and Negrito-Manóbo half-breeds
The Banuáons
The Mañgguáñgans
The Mansákas
The Debabáons
The Mandáyas
The Tágum branch
The Agúsan Valley branch
The Pacific coast branch
The gulf of Davao branch
The Moros
The Biláns
The Tagakaólos
Lóaks or Lóags
The conquistas or recently Christianized peoples
The Manóbo conquistas
The Mandáya conquistas
The Mamánua conquistas
The Mañgguáñgan conquistas
The Mansáka conquistas
The Debabáon conquistas
The Bisáyas or Christian Filipinos
CHAPTER II. Physical characteristics and general appearance of the Manóbos of eastern Mindanáo
Physical type
Divergence of types
General physical type
Racial and tribal affinities
Montano's Indonesian theory
Keane's view
The Indonesian theory as applied to Manóbos
Physical type of contiguous peoples
The Mañgguáñgans
The Mandáyas
The Debabáons
The Mamánuas
The Banuáons
Physical appearance as modified by dress and ornamentation
CHAPTER III. A survey of the material and sociological culture of the Manóbos of eastern Mindanáo
General material culture
Dwellings
Alimentation
Narcotic and stimulating enjoyments
Means of subsistence
Weapons and implements
Industrial activities
General sociological culture
Domestic life
Marital relations
Pregnancy, birth, and childhood
Medicine, sickness, and death
Social and family enjoyments
Political organization
System of government and social control
Methods of warfare
Intertribal and analogous relations
Administration of justice
General principles and various laws
Regulations governing domestic relations and property; customary procedure in settlement of disputes
CHAPTER IV. Religious ideas and mental characteristics in general
A brief survey of religion
The basis, influence, and machinery of religion
The hierarchy of Manóbo divinities, beneficent and malignant
Priests, their functions, attributes, and equipment
The main characteristics of Manóbo religion
Mental and other attainments and characteristics
PART II. GENERAL MATERIAL CULTURE
CHAPTER V. The Manobo home
In general
Motives that determine the selection of the site
Religious motives
Material motives
Religious ceremonies connected with the erection of a house
Structure of the house
The materials
The dimensions and plan of construction
The floor
The roof and the thatch
The walls
The doorway and the ladder
Internal arrangements
Decorations
The furniture and equipment of the house
The underpart and the environment of the house
Order and cleanliness of the house
CHAPTER VI. Dress
General remarks
Delicacy in exposure of the person
Variety in quantity and quality of clothes
The use of bark cloth
Dress as an indication of rank
Dress in general
Preferential colors in dress
The man's dress
Hats and headkerchiefs
The jacket
The lower garment
The girdle
The betel-nut knapsack
The woman's dress
The jacket
The upper Agúsan style
The style of the central group
The girdle and its pendants
The skirt
CHAPTER VII. Personal adornment
General remarks
Hair and head adornment
Care and ornamentation of the head
Combs
Ear disks
Neck and breast ornaments
Arm and hand ornamentation
Knee and ankle adornments
Body mutilations
General remarks
Mutilation of the teeth
Mutilation of the ear lobes
Depilation
Tattooing
Circumcision
CHAPTER VIII. Alimentation
Fire and its production
The "fire-saw"
The steel and flint process
Continuation of the fire
Lighting
Culinary and table equipment
Various kinds of food
The preparation and cooking of food
Preparing the food
Cooking the food
Food restrictions and taboos
Meals
Ordinary meals
Festive meals
CHAPTER IX. Narcotic and stimulating enjoyments
Drinks used by the Manobos
Sugar-palm wine
Báhi toddy
Sugarcane brew
Extraction of the juice
Boiling
Fermentation
Mead
Drinking
General remarks
The sumsúm-an
Drinking during religious and social feasts
Evil effects from drinking
Tobacco preparation and use
The betel-nut masticatory
Ingredients and effect of the quid
Betel chewing accessories
CHAPTER X. Means of subsistence
Agriculture
General remarks
The time and place for planting rice
The sowing ceremony
The clearing of the land
The sowing of the rice and its culture
The rice harvest
The harvest feast
The culture of other crops
Hunting
Hunting with dogs
Offering to Sugúdun, the spirit of hunters
The hunt
Hunting taboos and beliefs
Other methods of obtaining game
Trapping
Trapping ceremonies and taboos
The bamboo spear trap
Other varieties of traps
Fishing
Shooting with bow and arrow
Fishing with hook and line
Fish-poisoning
The túba method
The túbli method
The lágtañg method
Dry-season lake fishing
Fishing with nets, traps, and torches
CHAPTER XI. Weapons and implements
Introductory remarks
Offensive weapons
The bow and arrow
The bolo and its sheath
A magic test for the efficiency of a bolo
The lance
The dagger and its sheath
Defensive weapons
The shield
Armor
Traps and caltrops
Agricultural implements
The ax
The bolo
The rice header
Fishing implements
The fishing bow and arrow
The fish spear
Fishhooks
Hunting implements
The spear
The bow and arrow
The blowgun
CHAPTER XII. Industrial activities
Division of labor
Male activities
Female activities
Male industries in detail
Boat building
Mining
Plaiting and other activities
Female industries in detail
Weaving and its accessory processes
Pottery
Tailoring and mat making
PART III. GENERAL SOCIOLOGICAL CULTURE
CHAPTER XIII. Domestic life and marital relations
Arranging the marriage
Selection of the bride
Courtship and antenuptial relations
Begging for the hand of the girl
Determination of the marriage payment
The marriage feast and payment
The reciprocatory payment and banquet
Marriage and marriage contracts
The marriage rite
Marriage by capture
Prenatal marriage contracts and child marriage
Polygamy and kindred institutions
Endogamy and consanguineous marriages
Intertribal and other marriages
Married life and the position of the wife
Residence of the son-in-law and the brother-in-law system
CHAPTER XIV. Domestic life: Pregnancy, birth, and childhood
Desire for progeny
Birth and pregnancy taboos
Taboos to be observed by the husband
Taboos to be observed by the wife
Taboos to be observed by both husband and wife
Taboos enjoined on visitors
Abortion
Artificial abortion
Involuntary abortion
The approach of parturition
The midwife
Prenatal magic aids
Prenatal religious aids
Accouchement and ensuing events
Postnatal customs
Taboos
The birth ceremony
The naming and care of the child
Birth anomalies
Monstrosities
Albinism
Hermaphroditism
CHAPTER XV. Domestic life: Medicine, sickness, and death
Medicine and disease
Natural medicines and diseases
Magic ailments and means of producing them
The composition of a few "Kometán"
Other magic means
Bodily ailments proceeding from supernatural causes
Sickness due to capture of the "soul" by an inimical spirit
Epidemics attributed to the malignancy of sea demons
Propitiation of the demons of contagious diseases
Sickness and death
The theory of death
Fear of the dead and of the death spirits
Incidents accompanying deaths
Preparation of the corpse
The funeral
Certain mourning taboos are observed
Death and burial of one killed by an enemy, of a warrior chief, and of a priest
The after world
The death feast
CHAPTER XVI. Social enjoyments
Instrumental music
The drum
The gong
Flutes
The paúndag flute
The to-áli flute
The lántui
The sá-bai flute
Guitars
The vine-string guitar
The bamboo-string guitar
The takúmbo
The violin
The jew's-harp
The stamper and the horn of bamboo
Sounders
Vocal music
The language of song
The subject matter of songs
The music and the method of singing
Ceremonial songs
Dancing
The ordinary social dance
The religious dance
Mimetic dances
The bathing dance
The dagger or sword dance
The apian dance
The depilation dance
The sexual dance
The war dance
CHAPTER XVII. Political organization: System of government and social control
Clans
Territories of the clans and number of people composing them
Interclan relations
The chief and his power
The source of the chief's authority
Equality among the people
Respect for ability and old age
The warrior chief
General character
Insignia and prowess of the warrior chief
The warrior's title to recognition
Various degrees of warrior chiefship
The warrior chief in his capacity as chief
The warrior chief as priest and medicine man
CHAPTER XVIII. Political organization: War, its origin, inception, course, and termination
Military affairs in general
The origin of war
Vendettas
Private seizure
Debts and sexual infringements
Inception of war
Declaration of war
Time for war
Preparations for war
The attack
Time and methods of attack
Events following the battle
Celebration of the victory
The capture of slaves
The return of the warriors
Ambushes and other methods of warfare
Peace
CHAPTER XIX. Political organization: General principles of the administration of justice: customary,
proprietary, and liability laws
General considerations
General principles
The principle of material substitution
Right to a fair hearing
Securing the defendant's good will
Foundations of Manóbo law
Customary law
Its natural basis
Its religious basis
Proprietary laws and obligations
Conception of property rights
Land and other property
Laws of contract
The law of debt
Interest, loans, and pledges
Interest
Loans and pledges
Laws of liability
Liability arising from natural causes
Liability arising from religious causes
Liability arising from magic causes
The system of fines
CHAPTER XX. Political organization: Customs regulating domestic relations and family property; procedure for
the attainment of justice
Family property
Rules of inheritance
Rules governing the relations of the sexes
Moral offenses
Marriage contracts and payments
Illegitimate children
Extent of authority of father and husband
Residence of the husband
Crimes and their penalties
Crimes
The private seizure
Penalties for minor offenses
Customary procedure
Preliminaries to arbitration
General features of a greater arbitration
Determination of guilt
By witnesses
By oaths
By the testimony of the accused
By ordeals
The hot-water ordeal
The diving ordeal
The candle ordeal
By circumstantial evidence
Enforcement of the sentence
CHAPTER XXI. Political organization: Intertribal and other relations
Intertribal relations
Interclan relations
External commercial relations
Exploitation by Christian natives
Exploitation by falsification
Defraudation by usury and excessive prices
Exploitation by the system of commutation
Wheedling or the puának system
Bartering transactions
General conditions of trading
Internal commercial relations
Money and substitutes for it
Prevailing Manóbo prices
Weights and measures
Slave trade and slaves
Slave trade
Classes of slaves
Delivery and treatment of slaves
PART IV. RELIGION
CHAPTER XXII. General principles of Manóbo religion and nature and classification of Manobo deities
Introductory
General principles of religion
Sincerity of belief
Basis of religious belief
Means of detecting supernatural evil
Belief in an hierarchy of beneficent and malignant deities
Other tenets of Manobo faith
Spirit companions of man
General character of the deities
Classification of deities and spirits
Benevolent deities
Gods of gore and rage
Malignant and dangerous spirits
Agricultural goddesses
Giant spirits
Gods of lust and consanguineous love
Spirits of celestial phenomena
Other spirits
Nature of the various divinities in detail,
The primary deities
The secondary order of deities
The gods of gore, and kindred spirits
CHAPTER XXIII. Maleficent spirits
The origin and nature of malignant demons
Methods of frustrating their evil designs
Through priests
By various material means
By propitiation
The tagbánua, or local forest spirits
Their characteristics and method of living
Definite localities tenanted by forest spirits
Worship of the forest spirits
CHAPTER XXIV. Priests, their prerogatives and functions
The bailán or ordinary Manobo priests
Their general character
Their prerogatives
Sincerity of the priests
Their influence
Their dress and functions
The bagáni, or priests of war and blood
CHAPTER XXV. Ceremonial accessories and religious rites
General remarks
The paraphernalia of the priest
The religious shed and the bailán's house
Equipment for ceremonies
Ceremonial decorations
Sacred images
Ceremonial offerings
Religious rites
Classification
Method of performance
The betel-nut tribute
The offering of incense
Invocation
Prophylactic fowl waving
Blood lustration
Lustration by water
CHAPTER XXVI. Sacrifices and war rites
The sacrifice of a pig
Rites peculiar to the war priests
The betel-nut offering to the souls of the enemies
Various forms of divination
The betel-nut cast
Divination from the báguñg vine
Divination from báya squares,
Invocation of the omen bird
The tagbúsau's feast
Human sacrifice
CHAPTER XXVII. Divination and omens
In general
Miscellaneous casual omens
Divination by dreams
Divination by geometrical figures
The vine omen
The rattan omen
Divination by suspension and other methods
The suspension omen
The omen from eggs
Divination by sacrificial appearances
The blood omen
The neck omen
The omen from the gall
The omen from the liver
The omen from a fowl's intestinal appendix
Ornithoscopy
In general
Respect toward the omen bird
Interpretation of the omen bird's call
Birds of evil omen
CHAPTER XXVIII. Mythological and kindred beliefs
The creation of the world
Celestial phenomena
The rainbow
Thunder and lightning
Eclipse of the moon
Origin of the stars and the explanation of sunset and sunrise
The story of the Ikúgan, or tailed men, and of the resettlement of the Agúsan Valley
Giants
Peculiar animal beliefs
The petrified craft and crew of Kagbubátañg
Angó, the petrified Manóbo
CHAPTER XXIX. The great religious movement of 1908-1910
The extent of the movement
Reported origin and character of the revival
Spread of the movement
Its exterior character and general features
The principal tenets of the movement
New order of deities
Observances prescribed by the founder
Religious rites
The real nature of the movement and means used to carry on the fraud
The sacred traffic
Religious tours
The whistling scheme
Pretended chastity and austerity
The end of the movement
Similar movements in former years
APPENDIX
Historical references to the Manóbos of eastern Mindanao
Early history up to 1875
From 1875 to 1910
Methods adopted by the missionaries in the Christianization of the Manóbos
The secret of missionary success
Explanation of plates
PART I. DESCRIPTIVE
CHAPTER I
CLASSIFICATION AND GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF MANÓBOS
AND OTHER PEOPLES IN EASTERN MINDANÁO
EXPLANATION OF TERMS
"EASTERN MINDANÁO"
Throughout this monograph I have used the term "eastern Mindanáo" to include that part of Mindanáo that is east
of the central Cordillera as far south as the headwaters of the River Libagánon, east of the River Tágum and its
influent the Libagánon, and east of the gulf of Davao.
THE TERM "TRIBE"
The word "tribe" is used in the sense in which Dean C. Worcester defines and uses it in his article on The non-
Christian Tribes of Northern Luzon:1
A division of a race composed of an aggregate of individuals of a kind and of a common origin,
agreeing among themselves in, and distinguished from their congeners by physical characteristics,
dress, and ornaments; the nature of the communities which they form; peculiarities of house
architecture; methods of hunting, fishing, and carrying on agriculture; character and importance of
manufacture; practices relative to war and the taking of heads of enemies; arms used in warfare;
music and dancing, and marriage and burial customs; but not constituting a political unit subject to
the control of any single individual nor necessarily speaking the same dialect.
1Philip. Journ. Sci., 1: 803, 1906.
PRESENT USE OF THE WORD "MANÓBO"
The word "Manóbo" seems to be a generic name for people of greatly divergent culture, physical type, and
language. Thus it is applied to the people that dwell in the mountains of the lower half of Point San Agustin as well
as to those people whose habitat is on the southern part of the Sarangani Peninsula. Those, again, that occupy the
hinterland of Tuna Bay2 come under the same designation. So it might seem that the word was originally used to
designate the pagan as distinguished from the Mohammedanized people of Mindanáo, much as the name
Harafóras or Alfúros was applied by the early writers to the pagans to distinguish them from the Moros.
2Tuna Bay is on the southern coast of Mindanáo, about halfway between Sarangani Bay and Parang Bay.
In the Agúsan Valley the term manóbo is used very frequently by Christian and by Christianized peoples, and
sometimes by pagans themselves, to denote that the individual in question is still unbaptized, whether he be
tribally a Mandáya, a Mañgguáñgan, or of some other group. I have been told by Mandáyas on several occasions
that they were still manóbo, that is, still unbaptized.
Then, again, the word is frequently used by those who are really Manóbos as a term of contempt for their fellow
tribesmen who live in remoter regions and who are not as well off in a worldly or a culture[sic] way as they are.
Thus I have heard Manóbos of the upper Agúsan refer to their fellow-tribesmen of Libagánon as Manóbos, with
evident contempt in the voice. I asked them what they themselves were, and in answer was informed that they
were Agusánon--that is, upper Agúsan people--not Manóbos.
THE DERIVATION AND ORIGINAL APPLICATION OF THE WORD "MANÓBO"
One of the earliest references that I find to the Manóbos of the Agúsan Valley is in the General History of the
Discalced Augustinian Fathers (1661-1699) by Father Pedro de San Francisco de Assis.3 The author says that
"the mountains of that territory4 are inhabited by a nation of Indians, heathens for the greater part, called
Manóbos, a word signifying in that language, as if we should say here, robust or very numerous people." I have
so far found no word in the Manóbo dialect that verifies the correctness of the above statement. It may be said,
however, in favor of this derivation that manúsia is the word for "man" or "mankind" in the Malay, Moro
(Magindanáo), and Tirurái languages. In Bagóbo, a dialect that shows very close resemblance to Manóbo, the
word Manóbo means "man," and in Magindanáo Moro it means "mountain people,"5 and is applied by the Moros
to all the mountain people of Mindanáo. It might be maintained, therefore, with some semblance of reason that the
word Manóbo means simply "people." Some of the early historians use the words Manóbo, Mansúba, Manúbo.
These three forms indicate the derivation to be from a prefix man, signifying "people" or "dweller," and súba, a
river. From the form Manúbo, however, we might conclude that the word is made up of man("people"), and
húbo("naked"), therefore meaning the "naked people." The former derivation, however, appears to be more
consonant with the principles upon which Mindanáo tribal names, both general and local, are formed. Thus
Mansáka, Mandáya, Mañgguáñgan are derived, the first part of each, from man ("people" or "dwellers"), and
the remainder of the words, respectively, from sáka ("interior"), dáya ("up the river"), guáñgan ("forest"). These
names then mean "people of the interior," "people that dwell on the upper reaches of the river," and "people that
dwell in the forest." Other tribal designations of Mindanáo races and tribes are almost without exception derived
from words that denote the relative geographic position of the tribe in question. The Banuáon and Mamánua are
derived from banuá, the "country," as distinguished from settlements near the main or settled part of the river. The
Bukídnon are the mountain people (bukid, mountain); Súbanun, the river people (súba, river); Tirurái, the
mountain people (túduk, mountain, etéu, man);6 Tagakaólo, the people at the very source of a river (tága,
inhabitant, ólo, head or source).
3Blair and Robertson, 41: 153, 1906.
4The author refers to the mountains in the vicinity of Líano, a town that stood down the river from the present
Veruéla and which was abandoned when the region subsided.
5Fr. Jacinto Juanmarti's Diccionario Moro Magindanáo-Español (Manila, 1892), 125.
6My authority for this derivation is a work by Dr. T. H. Pardo de Tavera on The Origin of Philippine Tribal
Names.
The derivation of the above tribal designations leads us to the opinion that the word Manóbo means by derivation
a "river-man," and not a "naked man."
A further alternative derivation has been suggested by Dr. N. M. Saleeby,7 from the word túbo, "to grow"; the
word Manóbo, according to this derivation, would mean the people that grew up on the island, that is the original
settlers or autochthons. The word túbo, "to grow," is not, however, a Manóbo word, and it is found only in a few
Mindanáo dialects.
7Origin of Malayan Filipinos, a paper read before the Philippine Academy, Manila, Nov. 1, 1911.
Father F. Combes, S. J.,8 says that the owners, that is, the autochthonic natives of Mindanáo, were called
Manóbos and Mananápes.9 In a footnote referring to Mananápes, it is stated, and appears very reasonable and
probable, that the above-mentioned term is not a tribal designation but merely an appellation of contempt used on
account of the low culture possessed by the autochthons at that time.
8Historia de Mindanáo y Jolo (Madrid, 1664). Ed. Retana (Madrid, 1897).
9The word mananáp is the word for animal, beast in the Cebu Bisáya, Bagóbo, Tirurái, and Magindanáo Moro
languages. Among some of the tribes of eastern Mindanáo, the word is applied to a class of evil forest spirits of
apparently indeterminate character. It is noteworthy that these spirits seem to correspond to the Manubu spirits
of the Súbanuns as described by Mr. Emerson B. Christie in his Súbanuns of Sindangan Bay (Pub. Bur. Sci., Div.
Eth., 88, 1909).
Hence there seems to be some little ground for supposing that the word Manóbo was originally applied to all the
people that formerly occupied the coast and that later fled to the interior, and settled along the rivers, yielding the
seashore to the more civilized invaders.
The following extract from Dr. N. M. Saleeby10 bears out the above opinion:
10The Origin of the Malayan Filipinos, a paper read before the Philippine Academy on Nov. 1, 1911.
The traditions and legends of the primitive tribes of the Philippine Archipelago show very clearly that
they believe that their forefathers arose in this land and that they have been here ever since their
creation. They further say that the coast tribes and foreigners came later and fought them and took
possession of the land which the latter occupy at present. When Masha' ika, the earliest recorded
immigrant, reached Súlu Island, the aborigines had already developed to such a stage of culture as to
have large settlements and rajas or datus.
These aborigines are often referred to in Súlu and Mindanáo as Manubus, the original inhabitants of
Súlu Islands, the Budanuns, were called Manubus also. So were the forefathers of the Magindanáo
Moros. The most aboriginal hill tribes of Mindanáo, who number about 60,000 souls or more, are
called Manubus.
[Transcriber's note: Both of the above paragraphs comprise the quotation.]
The idea that the original owners were called Manóbos is the opinion of San Antonio also, as expressed in his
Cronicas.11 Such a supposition might serve also to explain the wide distribution of the different Manóbo people in
Mindanáo, for, besides occupying the regions above-mentioned, they are found on the main tributaries of the Rio
Grande de Kotabáto--the Batañgan, the Biktósa, the Luan, the Narkanitan, etc., and especially on the River
Pulañgi--on nearly all the influents of the last-named stream, and on the Hiñgoog River in the Province of Misamis.
As we shall see later on, even in the Agúsan Valley, the Manóbos were gradually split on the west side of the
river by the ingress, as of some huge wedge, of the Banuáons. Crossing the eastern Cordillera, a tremendous
mass of towering pinnacles--the home of the Mamánuas--we find Manóbos occupying the upper reaches of the
Rivers Hubo, Marihátag, Kagwáit, Tágo, Tándag, and Kantílan, on the Pacific coast. I questioned the Manóbos
of the rivers Tágo and Hubo as to their genealogy and former habitat and found that their parents, and even some
of themselves, had lived on the river Kasilaían, but that, owing to the hostility of the Banuáons, they had fled to the
river Wá-Wa. At the time of the coming of the Catholic missionaries in 1875, these Manóbos made their way
across the lofty eastern Cordillera in an attempt to escape from the missionary activities. These two migrations are
a forcible example of what may have taken place in the rest of Mindanáo to bring about such a wide distribution
of what was, perhaps, originally one people. Each migration led to the formation of a new group from which, as
from a new nucleus, a new tribe may have developed in the course of time.
11Blair and Robertson, 40: 315, 1906.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE MANÓBOS IN EASTERN MINDANÁO12
12See tribal map.
IN THE AGÚSAN VALLEY
The Manóbos occupy the whole Agúsan Valley as far as the town of Buai on the upper Agúsan with the
following exceptions:
1. The upper parts of the rivers Lamiñga, Kandiisan, Hawilian, and Óhut, and the whole of the river Maásam,
together with the mountainous region beyond the headwaters of these rivers, and probably the territory beyond in
the district of Misamis, as far over as the habitat of the Bukídnon tribe.13
13The reason for the insertion of this last clause is that the people inhabiting the mountains at the headwaters of the
above rivers have the same physical types, dress, and weapons as the Bukídnons, if I may judge from my slight
acquaintance with the latter.
2. The towns of Butuán, Talakógon, Bunáwan, Veruéla, and Prosperidad.
3. The town of Tagusab and the headwaters of the Tutui and Binuñgñgaan Rivers.
ON THE EASTERN SIDE OF THE PACIFIC CORDILLERA
In this region I include the upper waters of the Liañga, Hubo, Oteiza, Marihátag, Kagwáit, Tágo, Tándag, and
Kantílan Rivers.
ON THE PENINSULA OF SAN AGUSTIN
I desire to call the reader's attention to the fact that this monograph has no reference to the Manóbos of Port
San Agustin nor to the Manóbos of the Libagánon River and its tributaries, nor to the Manóbos that
occupy the hinterland above Nasipit as far as the Bugábus River. I had only cursory dealings with the
inhabitants of the last-named region but both from my own scant observations and from the reports of others
more familiar with them, I am inclined to believe that there may be differences great enough to distinguish them
from the other peoples of the Agúsan Valley as a distinct tribe.
As to the Manóbos of Libagánon, it is probable that they have more or less the same cultural and linguistic
