The language of Roman adultery

206 Pages·2013·1.52 MB·English

by  Jessica Elizabeth Dixon

THE LANGUAGE OF ROMAN ADULTERY

A thesis submitted to The University of Manchester for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
in the Faculty of Humanities

2012

JESSICA E. DIXON

SCHOOL OF ARTS, LANGUAGES AND CULTURES
Contents
CONTENTS ................................................................................................................................................... 2
LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................................................... 4
ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................................... 5
DECLARATION ............................................................................................................................................. 6
COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ............................................................................................................................. 7
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................... 8
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION AND DEFINITIONS ..................................................................................... 9
1.1) LAW AND SOCIETY........................................................................................................................................ 9
1.2) MORAL REFORM ....................................................................................................................................... 10
1.3) THE LANGUAGE OF ADULTERY ...................................................................................................................... 12
1.4) LEGAL SOURCES ......................................................................................................................................... 15
1.5) DEFINITIONS OF ADULTERIUM AND STUPRUM .................................................................................................. 17
CHAPTER TWO: ROMAN ADULTERY .......................................................................................................... 27
2.1) ADULTERY IN THE REPUBLIC ......................................................................................................................... 27
Republican Morality ................................................................................................................................ 27
Women .................................................................................................................................................... 29
The Prosecution of Adultery .................................................................................................................... 32
Lex Scantinia ............................................................................................................................................ 42
2.2) THE PROVISIONS AND PENALTIES OF THE LEX IULIA ........................................................................................... 48
Accusations .............................................................................................................................................. 48
Other Charges .......................................................................................................................................... 55
Torture of Slaves ...................................................................................................................................... 58
Prosecution .............................................................................................................................................. 60
Punishment .............................................................................................................................................. 62
Punishment in Literature ......................................................................................................................... 66
Punishment of the Adulteress .................................................................................................................. 71
Scope ....................................................................................................................................................... 77
Purpose .................................................................................................................................................... 78
2.3) AFTER THE LEX IULIA ................................................................................................................................... 83
2.4) CONCLUSIONS ........................................................................................................................................... 87
CHAPTER THREE: ADULTERIUM AND STUPRUM IN LATIN PROSE .............................................................. 89
3.1) THE AUTHORS ........................................................................................................................................... 89
3.2) THE TERMS ............................................................................................................................................... 95
3.3) STATUS .................................................................................................................................................... 98
Cicero ..................................................................................................................................................... 101
Sallust .................................................................................................................................................... 104
Livy ......................................................................................................................................................... 105
Valerius Maximus .................................................................................................................................. 106
Tacitus ................................................................................................................................................... 107
2
Suetonius ............................................................................................................................................... 109
3.4) ASSOCIATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 110
Cicero ..................................................................................................................................................... 110
Sallust .................................................................................................................................................... 116
Livy ......................................................................................................................................................... 118
Valerius Maximus .................................................................................................................................. 120
Tacitus ................................................................................................................................................... 120
Suetonius ............................................................................................................................................... 124
3.5) CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 125
CHAPTER FOUR: ADULTERIUM AND STUPRUM IN LATIN VERSE .............................................................. 127
4.1) THE AUTHORS ......................................................................................................................................... 128
4.2) THE TERMS ............................................................................................................................................. 134
4.3) STATUS .................................................................................................................................................. 140
Plautus ................................................................................................................................................... 142
Terence .................................................................................................................................................. 143
Catullus .................................................................................................................................................. 144
Horace ................................................................................................................................................... 145
Propertius .............................................................................................................................................. 146
Ovid ....................................................................................................................................................... 149
Martial ................................................................................................................................................... 150
Juvenal ................................................................................................................................................... 151
4.4) ASSOCIATIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 152
Plautus ................................................................................................................................................... 152
Terence .................................................................................................................................................. 155
Catullus .................................................................................................................................................. 156
Horace ................................................................................................................................................... 157
Propertius .............................................................................................................................................. 164
Ovid ....................................................................................................................................................... 165
Martial ................................................................................................................................................... 168
Juvenal ................................................................................................................................................... 171
4.5) CONCLUSIONS ......................................................................................................................................... 175
CONCLUSION ........................................................................................................................................... 177
APPENDIX ONE: SENECA THE ELDER ........................................................................................................ 181
APPENDIX TWO: WORD FREQUENCY TABLES .......................................................................................... 184
(I) PROSE AUTHORS .................................................................................................................................... 184
(II) VERSE AUTHORS .................................................................................................................................... 187
(III) SENECA THE ELDER ................................................................................................................................. 189
BIBLIOGRAPHY ........................................................................................................................................ 190

Word count: 79,983
3
List of Figures

FIGURE 1: INDIVIDUAL WORD FREQUENCY OF THE PROSE AUTHORS ................................................................ 96
FIGURE 2: FREQUENCY OF ADULTERIUM AND STUPRUM (INCLUDING THEIR DERIVATIVES) IN THE PROSE AUTHORS .. 97
FIGURE 3: STATUS OF THE PASSIVE PARTNER IN THE SEXUAL AFFAIR IN THE PROSE AUTHORS ............................... 99
FIGURE 4: INDIVIDUAL WORD FREQUENCY IN THE VERSE AUTHORS ............................................................... 135
FIGURE 5: MASCULINE AND FEMININE FORMS IN THE VERSE AUTHORS .......................................................... 135
FIGURE 6: USE OF ADULTER/A OR MOECHUS/A IN THE VERSE AUTHORS ......................................................... 137
FIGURE 7: PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF ADULTERIUM, STUPRUM, AND MOECHUS (INCLUDING THEIR DERIVATIVES) IN
THE VERSE AUTHORS .................................................................................................................... 140
FIGURE 8: STATUS OF THE PASSIVE PARTNER IN THE SEXUAL AFFAIR IN THE VERSE AUTHORS ............................. 141
FIGURE 9: PERCENTAGE FREQUENCY OF ADULTERIUM AND STUPRUM (INCLUDING THEIR DERIVATIVES) IN SENECA
THE ELDER .................................................................................................................................. 181
FIGURE 10: STATUS OF THE PASSIVE PARTNER IN THE SEXUAL AFFAIR IN SENECA THE ELDER ............................. 182
4
Abstract

The Language of Roman Adultery

This thesis uses the language of adultery to examine the relationship between law and
society in ancient Rome. In particular, questions will be asked about the ways in which
this exchange functioned – do social norms determine law or vice versa? To begin, the lex
Iulia de adulteriis coercendis will be contextualised within Augustus’ wider programme of
moral reform, and definitions will be given for adulterium and stuprum, the terms which
the law used to classify the actions it penalised.
The thesis will use these two terms as a lens through which to investigate changes
in attitudes to adultery following the introduction of the lex Iulia. A survey of the use of
adulterium and stuprum, including their derivatives and the borrowed Greek form
moechus, will be made within Latin literature from the 2nd century BC until the 2nd century
AD. It will be argued that changes in the use and meaning of the terms following the
introduction of the lex Iulia are indicative of changes in attitudes to adultery within the
Roman male elite. This in turn will show that law can and does impact on society and it
can be used as a positive force to change society’s conception of a given behaviour.
Chapter two looks closely at the punishment of adultery in the republic in order to
provide a framework through which to understand the lex Iulia as an innovative piece of
legislation. The provisions of the law will then be recreated using the juristic texts of the
sixth century legal compilations and the chapter will conclude by looking at the attempts
to revive the lex Iulia by later emperors and the changes that were made to the law.
The focus of chapters three and four is the use of the terms adulterium and
stuprum in prose and verse literature. A selection of authors has been chosen to provide a
sample that covers the chronological period in question and to include a wide range of
genres. It will be shown that in the republic stuprum was the more frequent term as it
could be used to refer to sexual transgression in general, including adultery. However,
following the introduction of the adultery law, adulterium is found with much greater
frequency and its use reflects the new legal definition of adultery and the need to qualify
accusations in terms of the law. Moreover, whereas previously stuprum had been
conceived of as the more damaging and disgraceful concept, adulterium became to be of
greater concern. The legal significance which the lex Iulia gave to adultery and the terms
used to describe it are also evident.
Overall, it is the aim of this thesis to show how the introduction of the lex Iulia de
adulteriis coercendis shaped and altered attitudes to adultery within Roman society.
Nevertheless, the validity of using law to control morality continued to be questioned by
some of the authors studied and there were negative effects on ideas of marital fidelity
and sexual morality as a result of the law.
5
Declaration

No portion of the work referred to in the thesis
has been submitted in support of an application
for another degree or qualification of this or any
other university or another institute of learning.

6
Copyright Statement

i. The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis)
owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The
University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative
purposes.

ii. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy,
may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as
amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with
licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form
part of any such copies made.

iii. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trade marks and other
intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright
works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be
described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third
parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made
available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant
Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions.

iv. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and
commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or
Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see
http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=487), in any relevant Thesis
restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s
regulations (see http://www.manchester.ac.uk/library/aboutus/regulations) and in The
University’s policy on Presentation of Theses.

7
Acknowledgements

Firstly, I would like to thank my supervisor, Prof. Tim Parkin, both for introducing me to
the world of Roman law and for sharing with me his knowledge and enthusiasm for the
subject. Without his support this research would not have been possible. I have also been
very grateful for the support of my panel supervisors, Prof. Roy Gibson and Prof. Tim
Cornell, who have always kept me on my toes and offered insightful and comprehensive
guidance. I would also like to express my gratitude for the advice and congenial
atmosphere provided by the University of Manchester Classics department.
Many thanks are due to my friends and family who have supported and
encouraged me throughout. I would like to mention (in no particular order) Stevie Spiegl,
James Corke-Webster, Carina Spaulding, Sheona Davies, Katherine Fennelly, James
Greenhalgh, Ben Wilcock, Maarten Walraven, and everyone else who works in the
Haworth. Special thanks also need to go to Mum, Carina, and John Strachan for their help
with proofreading and formatting at the end, as well as Rebecca Frater, Elspeth Beidas,
Gemma Bunn, Kirsty Betts, and the Hallé Pub Team for keeping me sane.
8
Chapter One: Introduction and Definitions

1.1) Law and Society

The state recognizes that it has a duty to encourage high moral standards. Although the
state does not regulate the private sexual activity of consenting adults, the state does not
condone or encourage any form of sexual conduct outside the institution of marriage.
Marriage is the foundation of family and society. Its stability is basic to morality and
civilization, and of vital interest to society and this state.
(Wisconsin State Statute 944.01)1

In this passage the State of Wisconsin sets out the intention with which adultery is included within
current state law as a criminal offence.2 The values of marital fidelity and the concerns
surrounding the stability of both the family and wider society enshrined in this modern statute
are the same as those found in Rome at the time in which Augustus introduced the lex Iulia de
adulteriis coercendis.3 Throughout history adultery may be seen as being closely connected to
ideas of stability, not just within the family unit but also within society. Moreover, the inclusion of
adultery within US State law shows that the relationship between law and the control of sexual
morality is still a current topic and an area in which governments feel that they can interfere.4

1 Accessed at https://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/944/III/16/2/_1 on 23/10/2012.
2 Those found guilty would be charged with a Class I felony, which incurs either a fine up to $10,000 or up to
3 years and 6 months imprisonment or both (Wisconsin State Statute 939.50.3, accessed at
http://docs.legis.wisconsin.gov/statutes/statutes/939/IV/51/3/b on 23/10/2012).
3 Augustus’ adultery law is known today as the lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis and it was called this by
several jurists: Tryphoninus, Disp. book 3, D. 4.4.37.1; title of D. 48.5; Julian, Dig. book 86, D. 48.5.5;
Tryphonius, Disp. book 2, D. 48.5.43; Paul, de Adult. book 1, Coll. 4.2.1; CJ. 9.9.3, AD 213; CJ. 9.9.17, AD 257.
However, the majority referred to it solely as the lex Iulia de adulteriis: Papinian, Quaest. book 1, D.
1.21.1.pr.; Ulpian, Ed. book 6, D.3.2.2.3; Paul, de Adult. book 2, D. 22.5.18; Ulpian, de Leg. Iul. et Pap. book 1,
D. 23.2.43.13; Ulpian, de Leg. Iul. et Pap. book 2, D. 25.7.12; Ulpian, Sab. book 1, D. 28.1.20.6; Ulpian, Ed.
book 47, D. 38.11.1.1; Macer, de Pub. Iud. book 1, D. 48.1.1; Paul, de Adult. book 3, D. 48.2.3.pr.; Ulpian,
Diff. book 8, D. 48.5.2.2; Ulpian, de Adult. book 2, D. 48.5.16.1, 6; Papinian, Resp. book 6, D. 48.5.40.pr.;
Marcian, Inst. book 14, D. 48.6.5.2; Ulpian, Disp. book 3, D. 48.18.4; Modestinus, Diff. book 9, D. 50.16.101;
title of CTh. 9.7; CTh. 9.19.4.1, AD 376; CJ. 9.9.10, AD 225. It did, however, have two alternative names in
the Codex Justinianus: it was called the lex Iulia de adulteriis et de stupro in the title for chapter 9.9 and the
lex Iulia de pudicitia twice at CJ. 9.9.8 and CJ. 9.9.9 (both AD 224). Cf. Suetonius who says that Augustus
introduced laws “de adulteriis et de pudicitia” (Aug. 34). References to the lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis
will be abbreviated to the lex Iulia throughout.
4 The variations in penalty between the 23 American states that include adultery as a punishable offence
(ranging from life sentence in Michigan to a $10 fine in Maryland) and the history of the criminalisation of
adultery in America are discussed by Weissler (2012). Adultery is also a criminal offence in India, where the
9
The relationship between law and social norms is complicated and often hard to
distinguish. Moreover, law is invariably a product of the time in which it was created, meaning
that it is not possible to study law without consideration of the surrounding social and political
environment.5 Thomas McGinn has demonstrated that to understand fully law’s position within
society, as well as the relationship between social norms and legal sanctions, it is necessary to
move away from the traditional ‘evolutionary hypothesis’ of law, whereby social norms are seen
gradually to inform law, making it a one-way process.6 Moreover, law cannot be separated from
the interests and beliefs of the man or men who introduced it. Instead he suggests a model “that
explains, first, the social and legal forces that contribute to lawfinding; second, the structures and
rules that make up the ‘law’; and, third, the impact the law has on behaviour in society” (McGinn
1998a:7). It is the third part of this model that this study will address by looking at the relationship
of the lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis to society and the impact that it had (or did not have) on
behaviour in society.

1.2) Moral Reform

Augustus introduced the lex Iulia de adulteriis coercendis as part of a wider restoration of Roman
society following the comparative instability and trauma of the civil war period. The basis for this
programme of revival was the reinforcement of traditional morality and religion.7 Moreover,
following Augustus’ illness in 23 BC and his absence from Rome from 23 to 19 BC the importance

law has been recently criticised as being sexist, for it only penalises the male adulterer as the adulteress is
not liable under the law (http://www.rediff.com/news/2003/aug/12adultery.htm accessed on 23/10/2012).
Moreover, adultery is viewed as a sin in Christianity and Judaism (Exodus 20:14) and Islam (Quran 17:32).
5 See Humphreys (1985:257): “law as discourse, as a combination of speech and action, is inherently
historical and political. Laws are drafted and passed at particular moments in time in response to
historically conditioned conceptions of society and its needs.”
6 McGinn 1998a:4-9. Sawer (1965:135), whilst discussing a piece of Australian legislation, shows that after a
period of time people overlook the fact that their behaviour has been moderated by law: “although the
changes involved were to a considerable extent merely a matter of fitting relevant law to a social situation
which had changed, there was also an element of conscious social direction, as in provisions encouraging
marriage guidance and requiring greater attention to be paid to the position of children of a dissolved
marriage. But within a decade these Acts will be accepted as part of the system of lawyers’ law, something
to which people adjust their behaviour as best they can, and the name of their author will be remembered
only by lawyers; they will have ceased to be examples of social control, and become aspects of social
order.”
7 The importance of the moralising discourse of the late republic and the early empire is discussed further in
section 2.1.
10