Table Of ContentMemoirs
Museum of Anthropology, University of Michigan
Number 35
The Land of Houlouf
Genesis of a Chadic Polity, 1900 B.C.-A.D. 1800
Augustin F.C. Holl
Ann Arbor, Michigan
2002
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ISB9N7 8-0-915703-52-4 (paper)
ISBN 978-1-951519-91-9 (ebook)
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Contents
LIST OF FIGURES, 6
LIST OF TABLES, 12
PREFACE, 15
CHAPTER 1. CHADIAN PLAIN ARCHAEOLOGY: AN OUTLINE, 1
Introduction, 1
Research History, 1
Modeling Site Location Strategies, 3
The Landscape: Past and Present, 4
Holocene Settlement Expansion, 7
The Early Holocene Settlement Phase, 7
The Late Holocene Settlement Phase, 9
Tempo and Modes of Late Stone Age Colonization, 14
Learning from Historical Linguistics, 15
Concluding Remarks, 16
CHAPTER 2. SOCIAL FORMATIONS: AN ARCHAEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE, 19
Introduction, 19
Archaeology and Social Change, 19
Within the Black Box, 20
West African Social Formations: An Outline, 21
World Systems, Center-Periphery and Peer-Polity Interaction: A Case Study, 23
Warfare, Migrations and Settlement Relocation, 23
Pattern of Exchange, Rank and Hierarchy, 24
Archaeological Perspectives, 25
CHAPTER 3. THE RESEARCH PROGRAM, 27
Introduction, 27
Survey Operations, 28
Extensive and Selective Survey, 29
Judgmental Survey, 31
Intensive Survey, 31
The Study Area, 32
Excavation Strategies, 33
CHAPTER 4. EXCAVATIONS AT OEGUESSE, KRENAK, AND HAMEl, 35
Excavations at Oeguesse, 35
Introduction, 35
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 35
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 37
Summary, 42
Excavations at Krenak, 43
Introduction, 43
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 43
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 44
Summary, 47
Excavations at Hamei, 47
Introduction, 47
iii
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 48
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 49
Summary, 53
CHAPTER 5. EXCAVATIONS AT Y MiRE SITES, 55
Excavations at Mishiskwa, 55
Introduction, 55
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 55
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 55
Summary, 60
Excavations at Madaf, 60
Introduction, 60
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 60
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 61
Summary, 64
Excavations at Amachita, 65
Introduction, 65
The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 65
Summary, 67
Excavations at Sororo, 68
Introduction, 68
The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 68
Summary, 71
CHAPTER 6. EXCAVATIONS AT SOUTHEASTERN SITES, 73
Excavations at Ble Mound A, 73
Introduction, 73
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 73
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 73
Summary, 91
Excavations at Ble Mound B, 92
Introduction, 92
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 92
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 93
Summary, 101
Excavations at Ble Mound C, 101
Introduction, 101
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 101
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 102
Summary, 111
Excavations at Ble Mound D, 111
Introduction, 111
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 112
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 113
Summary, 120
Excavations at Ble Mound E, 120
Introduction, 120
The Stratigraphic Sequence, Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 120
Summary, 130
Excavations at Krenak-Sao, 130
Introduction, 130
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 131
Occupation Horizons and Archaeological Evidence, 132
Summary, 137
CHAPTER 7. EXCAVATIONS AT HOULOUF, 139
Introduction, 139
iv
The Stratigraphic Sequence, 140
Occupation Horizon I, 143
Occupation Horizon II, 147
Occupation Horizon III, 149
Occupation Horizon IV, 152
Occupation Horizon V, 155
Occupation Horizon VI, 158
Occupation Horizon VII, 165
Occupation Horizon VIII, 181
The Palace Complex, 181
Surface Material, 186
Summary, 186
CHAPTER 8. THE FORMATION OF THE LANDSCAPE, 189
Introduction: Hypotheses, 189
Before the Mounds: Ancient Topography of the Study Area, 189
Geomorphological Probes, 192
Sedimentary Buildup in a Fossil Channel, 194
Abani Channel-Krenak-Sao Geomorphological Transect, 196
CHAPTER 9. GENESIS OF THE HOULOUF CHIEFDOM, 203
Introduction, 203
A Long Prelude: The Deguesse Phase, 203
The Krenak Phase, 204
The Mishiskwa Phase, 206
Ele
The Phase, 209
The Houlouf Phase, 213
The Houlouf Phase A Cemetery, 215
Burial Facilities and the Disposal of the Dead, 215
Distribution of Grave Goods, 216
Spatial Organization of the Cemetery, 217
The Fabric of the Elite, 220
Procurement Strategies and Accumulation of Material Capital, 220
From Material to Symbolic Capital, 221
Cemetery Space, Social Factions and Occupational Hierarchy, 223
Spatial Context of the Cemetery, 224
Formal Disposal Area and Social Dynamics, 225
The Collapse of the Houlouf Chiefdom, 226
Surface Material and Archaeological Inference, 227
CHAPTER 10. CONTINGENCY,"EvENTS," "MENTALITEs," CONJONCTURES AND SOCIAL FORMATIONS, 231
Landscape and Regional Settlement Dynamics, 231
Mound Formation Processes, 233
Subsistence Patterns: Long-Term Perspectives, 238
Craft Specialization, 242
Ceramic Production, 242
Salt Production, 243
Fish Processing and Smoking, 244
Metal Production, 247
Long-Distance Exchange, 249
Events, Mentalites, Conjonctures, and Social Formations, 251
Events, 251
Mentalites, 251
Social Formations, 252
REFERENCES, 256
ApPENDIX A. HOULOUF POTTERY DESCRIPTIONS, 265
v
Figures
1. Distribution of archaeological sites in the Chadian Plain, 2
2. Fluctuations of Lake Chad levels at different time scales, 4
3. Major sedimentary formations and distribution of Late Stone Age sites, 6
4. Chronological chart of the studied Holocene Late Stone Age sites, 8
5. Glottochronological ordering and distribution of Chadic linguistic family, 15
6. Glottochronological ordering and distribution of eastern Central Chadic languages, 16
7. Hypothetical Proto-Chadic homeland, 17
8. Vegetation zones of northern Cameroon, 28
9. Soils of northern Cameroon, 29
10. Site distribution following judgmental survey, 30
11. Logone-Birni: the Sultan's palace viewed from the northwest, 30
12. Physiography of the study area, 31
13. Site distribution and soil types from the study area, 32
14. A construction pit from Houlouf, 34
15. Potsherds included in a present-day wall course, 34
16. Deguesse: site contour map, 35
17. Deguesse: the stratigraphic section, 36
18. Living floors and surfaces from Deguesse, 38
19. Deguesse: vessels from occupation horizon VII, 39
20. Deguesse: decorated sherds from occupation horizon VIII, 39
21. Deguesse: vessels from occupation horizon VIII, 40
22. Deguesse: decorated sherds and vessels from surface, 42
23. Krenak: site contour map, 43
24. Krenak: the stratigraphic section, 44
25. Krenak: living floors and surfaces and decorated sherds, 45
26. Ware and occupation horizon IV living surfaces, 46
27. Living surface and floor from occupation horizons V and VI, 47
28. Pottery from occupation horizon VI, 47
29. Living floor and surface from occupation horizons VII and VIII, 48
30. Krenak vessels from occupation horizon VIII and surface, 48
31. Hamei: site contour map, 49
32. Hamei: the stratigraphic section, 49
33. Hamei: occupation horizon I living surface, 49
34. Hamei: archaeological finds from occupation horizons I and II, 50
35. Hamei: house floor from occupation horizon II, 51
36. Hamei: living surface from occupation horizon III, 51
37. Hamei: house floor from occupation horizon IV, 52
38. Hamei: living surface from occupation horizon V, 52
39. Hamei: vessels and net sinker from occupation horizon V, 53
40. Mishiskwa: the stratigraphic section, 56
41. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon I, 57
42. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon II, 57
43. Mishiskwa: vessels and clay arm ring from occupation horizon II, 57
44. Mishiskwa: living surface from occupation horizon III with an iron-smelting furnace, 58
45. Mishiskwa: profile of the iron-smelting furnace, 58
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46. Mishiskwa: vessels and other archaeological finds from occupation horizon III, 58
47. Mishskwa: living surface from occupation horizon V, 59
48. Mishiskwa: pottery from occupation horizons V and VI, 59
49. Madaf: site contour map, 61
50. Madaf: the stratigraphic section, 61
51. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon I, 62
52. Madaf: archaeological finds from occupation horizon I, 63
53. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon III, 63
54. Madaf: vessels from occupation horizon IV, 63
55. Madaf: living surface from occupation horizon VI, 63
56. Madaf: pottery from occupation horizon VI and surface, 64
57. Amachita: site contour map, 65
58. Amachita: the southwestern section, 66
59. Amachita: the southeastern section 66
60. Amachita: the northeastern section, 67
61. Amachita: living surface from occupation horizon I, 67
62. Amachita: vessels from occupation horizon I, 68
63. Amachita: living surface from occupation horizon II, 68
64. Amachita: vessels from occupation horizons II and III, 69
65. Amachita: living surface from occupation horizon III, 69
66. Sororo: site contour map, 70
67. Sororo: the stratigraphic section, 70
68. Sororo: living surface from occupation horizon I, 71
69. Sororo: living surface from occupation horizon II, 71
70. Sororo: pottery from occupation horizon II, 71
71. Sororo: view of a present-day fish-smoking feature, 72
72. Ble Mound A: site contour map, 74
73. Ble Mound A: the northern section, 74
74. Ble Mound A: the southern section, 75
75. Ble Mound A: occupation horizon I house floor, 76
76. Ble Mound A: occupation horizon II house floor, 76
77. Ble MoundA: vessels and amazonite pendant from occupation horizon III, 77
78. Ble MoundA: occupation horizon III living surface, 77
79. Ble MoundA: profile of occupation horizon III watering trough, 77
80. Ble Moundd A: vessels and other finds from occupation horizon III, 78
81. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon IV, 78
82. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon IV, 79
83. Ble Moundd A: living surface from occupation horizon VI, 79
84. Ble Mound A: vessels and ground-axe from occupation horizon VI, 79
85. Ble Mound A: house floor from occupation horizon VII, 80
86. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon VII, 80
87. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon VIII, 80
88. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon VIII, 81
89. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon IX, 81
90. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon IX, 82
91. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon X, 82
92. Ble Mound A: profiles of fish-smoking features from occupation horizon X, 82
93. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon X, 83
94. Ble Mound A: figurines collected from occupation horizon X fish-smoking feature, 84
95. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon XI, 84
96. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon XI, 84
97. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon XII, 85
98. Ble Mound A: living surface from occupation horizon XIII, 85
99. Ble Mound A: pottery from occupation horizon XIII, 86
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100. Ble Mound A: vessels and figurines from occupation horizon XIV, 86
101. Ble Mound A: vessels from occupation horizon XV, 87
102. Ble Mound A: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon
XV, 88
103. Ble Mound A: head rest specimens found on surface, 89
104. Ble Mound A: head rest specimens, zoomorphic and anthropomorphic figurines, and
broken effigy jars found on surface, 90
105. Ble Mound A: plan and profile of a tested surface large fish-smoking feature, 91
106. Ble Mound B: site contour map, 93
107. Ble Mound B: the stratigraphic section, 93
108. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon I, 94
109. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon II, 94
110. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons II and III, 94
111. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon III, 94
112. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon IV, 95
113. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VI, 95
114. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizon VI, 95
115. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VII, 95
116. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon VIII, 96
117. Ble Mound B: living surface from occupation horizon IX, 96
118. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizons IX and X, 96
119. Ble Mound·B: house floor from occupation horizon X, 97
120. Ble Mound B: house floor from occupation horizon XI, 97
121. Ble Mound B: vessels from occupation horizon XI, 98
122. Ble Mound B: miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon XI, 99
123. Ble Mound B: vessels and head rest specimen from occupation horizon XII, 99
124. Ble Mound B: surface finds, 100
125. Ble Mound C: site contour map, 103
126. Ble Mound C: the stratigraphic section, 103
127. Burials from occupation horizons I and II, 103
128. Profile of occupation horizon I burial, 103
129. Ble Mound C: vessels from occupation horizon I, 104
130. Ble Mound C: superimposed house floors from occupation horizon II, 104
131. Ble Mound C: vessels and figurine from occupation horizon II, 104
132. Ble Mound C: occupation horizon II: vessels and head rest from the burial, and a bone
awl, 105
133. Ble Mound C: lower house floor from occupation horizon III, 105
134. Ble Mound C: the upper house floor from occupation horizon III, 105
135. Ble Mound C: decorated sherds from occupation horizon III, 106
136. Ble Mound C: house floor from occupation horizon IV with occupation horizon V
secondary burials, 106
137. Ble Mound C: living surface from occupation horizon V, 106
138. Ble Mound C: archaeological finds from occupation horizon V, 107
139. Ble Mound C: occupation horizon VII burials, 107
140. Ble Mound C: calcite lip-plugs and cylinder from occupation horizon VII burials, 107
141. Ble Mound C: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon
VI, 108
142. Ble Mound C: vessel, clay bell and decorated sherds from occupation horizon VII, 109
143. Ble Mound C: living surface from occupation horizon VIII, 109
144. Ble Mound C: profiles of occupation horizon VIII fish-smoking features, 110
145. Ble Mound C: vessels and female figurines from occupation horizon VIII, 111
146. Ble Mound C: copper cones and ostrich eggshell beads from a disturbed burial, 112
147. Ble Mound 0: site contour map, 113
148. Ble Mound 0: the stratigraphic section, 113
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149. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon I, 113
150. Ble Mound D: vessels and miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizons I
to III, 114
151. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon II, 116
152. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon III, 116
153. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon IV, 116
154. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon V, 116
155. Ble Mound D: house floor from occupation horizon VI, 117
156. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon VII, 117
157. Ble Mound D: living surface from occupation horizon VIII, 117
158. Ble Mound D: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizons
IV to VIII, 118
159. Ble Mound D: plan and sections of the tested surface fish-smoking features, 119
160. Ble Mound E: site contour map, 122
161. Ble Mound E: the southeastern section, 122
162. Ble Mound E: the southwestern section, 122
163. Ble Mound E: the northeastern section, 122
164. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon I with two occupation horizon II
burials, 123
165. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon I burial, 123
166. Ble Mound E: vessels and a net sinker from occupation horizon I, 123
167. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon II, 124
168. Ble Mound E: vessels from occupation horizon II and occupation horizon III burial,
125
169. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon III burial, 125
170. Ble Mound E: vessels and miscellaneous fired clay objects from occupation horizon
III, 126
171. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon IV, 127
172. Ble Mound E: vessels from occupation horizon IV, 127
173. Ble Mound E: living surface from occupation horizon V with large pits, 128
174. Ble Mound E: occupation horizon V burials, 128
175. Ble Mound E: vessels and miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizon V,
129
176. Ble Mound E: surface finds, 130
177. Krenak-Sao: site contour map, 132
178. Krenak-Sao: trench 6 stratigraphic section, 132
179. Krenak-Sao: trench 7 stratigraphic section, 133
180. Krenak-Sao: living surface from occupation horizon I with an occupation horizon II
burial, 134
181. Krenak-Sao: vessels and miscellaneous fired-clay objects from occupation horizon I,
134
182. Krenak-Sao: living surface from occupation horizon II with occupation horizon III
burials, 135
183. Krenak-Sao: pottery and an iron tang from occupation horizon II, 136
184. Krenak-Sao: house floor and a secondary burial from occupation horizon III, 136
185. Krenak-Sao: vessels and iron hoe-blade from occupation horizon III, 137
186. Krenak-Sao: house floor from occupation horizon IV, 137
187. Krenak-Sao: archaeological finds from occupation horizon IV, 138
188. Block diagrammatic presentation of Houlouf, 140
189. Houlouf street with mud-brick flat-roofed houses, 141
190. Houlouf: site contour map, 141
191. Houlouf: the stratigraphic section, 143
192. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (3.8 and 3.6 m samples), 144
193. Houlouf: cumulative particle-size curves (3.5 and 3.4 m samples), 144
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