Table Of ContentWinter 995
15(2):161-176
Ethnobiol. 1
/.
ETHNOBOTANY
OF
THE PALM:
KITUL
LANKA
HIGHLAND
CARYOTA URENS
IN SRI
L.
YVONNE
EVERETT
Department Landscape Architecture
of
202 Wurster Hall
University California
of
CA
94720
Berkeley,
ABSTRACT.— known Lanka
Carvota urens, as the kitul in Sri
perennial
Lanka
The syrup and sugar
prepared.
and beverages are
syrup, sugar, alcoholic
?t
purposes Lanka.
and highly valued for culinary in Sri
a special richness are
!
who
divide the
domain "toddy tappers" traditionally
Tapping palms the of
is
knowledge ana man-
palm paper focuses on the tappers
with owners. This
yield
The
and po-
and tapping processing activities.
agement palm, products,
of
kitul its
and economic impor-
The
ecological
economic value of kitul is assessed.
tential
and garden products in relation
markets other forest
tance of developing for kitul
Lanka emphasized.
highland are
and landscape conservation in Sri
to forest
and pahn own-
with tappers
upon interviews
The paper based the author's
is
and participant observation during dissertation field re-
study of yields
ers, kitul
Lanka 1989-91^.
linmc highland in
coar-^Ti r.n in Sri
o::>ri^f^r,'i
Lanka
RESUMEN.— como en
La conocida kitul Sri
Carvota urens,
uno
pereimes
preparan
para obtener su savia, de la cual se
sangrado tradicionalmente
es
kitul
sangrado
en Lanka. El
para culinarios Sri
valorados fines
riqueza y son altamente
de quienes tradicionalmente
dominio de "palmeros vino,"
de palmas los
es
las el
cen-
de palmeras. Este articulo se
con dueiios las
dividen producto obtenido los
el
manejo de palma sus produc-
en conocimiento de los palmeros y el la kitul,
tra el
economico
evalua valor
Se
procesamiento. el
de sangrado
y actividades y
tos, las
de
economica desarrollar
importancia ecologica y
potencial de Se enfatiza la
kitul.
en relacion a
de huertos forestales la
productos los
mercados para y otros
el kitul
de Lanka. El articulo
en zona alta Sri
conservacion de los bosques y el paisaje la
duenos de pahnas,
^ct5 h^cr^rio ^n Iaq pnfrpvistas de la utora con palmeros y el es-
durante
familiares
Lanka
^
S
une
nom de au Lanka, est
RESUME.— Sri
connu sous kitul
le
urens,
Carvoffl
iruer
forestiers
gemme
pour
Lanka, traditionellement
est
le kitul
EVERETT
No.
Vol. 2
162 15,
un
ainsi que des boissons alcoholiques sont prepares. Le sirop et le sucre ont gout
du
dans Lanka.
apprecie cuisine Sri
distinctif, tres la
Le du domaine des qui traditionellement parta-
nectar "tappers",
tirage est le
Nos
gent produit avec proprietaires des palmiers. recherches se concentrent
le les
du
sur le savoir-faire des tappers, Texploitation kitul et la preparation des produits
du Nous
palmiers. La valeur economique potentielle kitul est evaluee. soulignons
economique du developpement de marches pour
rimportance ecologique le
et
kitul et d'autres produits jardiniers forestiers, a Tegard de la protection ecologique
du
dans hauteurs Lanka.
les Sri
Ces recherches sont fondees sur interviews de Tauteur avec des tappers et
les
les proprietaires des palmiers, des recherches sur la preparation des produits a
de
des recherches
base des observations participantes faisant partie
dekitul, et
du
these sur les jardins forestiers des hauteurs Sri Lanka.
INTRODUCTION
Lanka palm and important traditional
In Sri treacle (syrup) jaggery (sugar) are
and produced from palmyra
sources of sweeteners. In arid areas jaggery are
treacle
and
{Borassus in the coastal zone from coconut palms {Cocos miciferaX in
flabellifer),
Thus
the wet interior and highland regions from fishtail palms {Caryota urens L.).
sugar can be produced from one another palm on most parts of the
locally or is-
known
land The palm Sinhalese
(Fig. fishtail or kitul as locally in (tippili-
1). it is
common and mixed
pana in Tamil), is a very tree in the lowland rain forest in
species forest gardens managed in highland Sri Lanka. This palm yields a rich,
raw
dark syrup with a highly valued, distinctive In comparative testing of
taste.
ranked
sugars reported from the Fairchild Botanical Gardens in Florida, kitul jaggery
among
being tested
those of highest quality (Lotschert 1985). export potential is
Its
with consumer
success in the Australian market.
The purposes of this paper are twofold. First, to present an ethnobotanical de-
and
scription of the palm, and second, discuss the palm in ecological so-
kitul to its
cioeconomic one many with market value found in
context as of species potential
con-
the forest gardens of highland Sri Lanka. The topic important as there is
is
and
economic gardens diverse
siderable pressure to convert existing forest to less
during
less ecologically valuable annual cropping systems. gathered data field
I
Ma-
Upper
research on gardens Welimada and Kotmale areas of the
forest in the
haweli Watershed the Central Highlands from 1989-1991,
in
AND
BOTANY ECOLOGY OF
KITUL
Caryota lowland Asia including Sri
urens native to rain forests of tropical
is
Lanka The Asia the
(Fig. genus Caryota has 27 species found across tropical to
2).
New name
Malay The Cary-
and
archipelago, Australia, Guinea. (Lotschert 1985).
the
stems from Greek meaning reference to
ota the karyotes, "nutlike/' This is in
hard and linked to the
small, fruits of the palms. Urens translates as "burning," is
(McCurrach
found on
irritating, needle-like crystals the outer shell of the fruits
m
A
and
unarmed palm, grows an 15-20 di-
1960). average height of
tall, kitul to
2-3
ameter of 30-50 cm. has a sparse crown of very large bipinnate leaves, often
It
dark
meters long and 1-2
meters wide The glabrous,
(Jayaweera leaves are
1982),
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
163
Winter 1995
•
Wet / Dry Zone Boundary
Elevation over 1.000 m
- m
Elevation 500 ItOOO
Lanka Highlands,
FIG. 1.—Areas Studied in the Sri
EVERETT
164 Vol. No. 2
15,
—
FIG. The palm mens
2. Kitul {Caryota L)
cm
and The
green, shiny. fishtail-like shape of the outward-turned 15 long leaflets
palm
give the English name.
its
Blatter (1926) reports that reaches maturity and begins flowering after
kitul
0-20 down-
Flowers appear from upper and bloom
1 years. the successively
leaf axils
m
ward and
to the mainstem. The inflorescence a 3-4 long on which male
stalk
is
female An 3-4 months and
spadices alternately bloom. average flower
lasts for
may same
bloom
several flowers simultaneously from main Therefore, the
the
stalk.
may
individual bear buds, and same McCurrach (I960)
flowers, fruits at the time.
may
suggests that kitul typically blooms for a year or two, though a palm flower
up When
periodically for to seven years as the leaves successively drop. the last
bloom Lankan
appears above mainstem and palm
the produces
the dies. Sri
fruits,
my
farmers they
substantiated these reports during interviews, and also said that
how many
estimate palm flower to
florets a will have from the head of the first
emerge—
usually from one
twelve
to flowers described below).
(as
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
Winter 1995 165
A Lanka
garden highland
3.— uneven-aged in Sri
FIG. species diverse, forest
mid and low country
conunon inte
Lanka palms in the
In are
Sri kitul
m
predominantly the natura]
pahns occur
m. lowlands, the
to 1,500 In the
palms
highlands are m,
mid-elevation
In contrast, in the largely deforested
These planted gardens are dense stands of u
in small holder forest gardens.
homes
family
surrounding individual
aged, mixed species of perennials
(
and include 25- 35
ha typically dif-
The gardens on average than 0.5 in size
are less
many and annual
herbaceous
woody along with
perennials,
ferent species of
ha
from over 350 individuals per 0.5 in th
ranging
Density of high,
trees
is
per ha
Welimada 500 in
by Division, to 0.5
mediate zone represented
ramfall
on adjoinmg
Tree canopies
Kotmale Division (Everett 1993).
commonlv
blend together into
tion.
17% garden
the of
habitat for
provides a suitable
This vegetation structure
and are not specifically planted
flora
that are remnants of the native forest
s
"volunteers" (Everett 1987).
nimal iisoersed
and only occasionally transplanted,
sp)
The by
dispersed civet cats {Civettictis
kitul,
woody
common survey of perennials in 1 73
In a
one most volunteers.2
of the
is
mens ranked eleventh in over-
Caryota
gardens highland cUmatic regions,
in three
pahns per garden (Everett
averaging 18
abundance,
with a high
species frequency,
all
mm
annual occurred
more than 2,300 of rainfall, kitul
1993). In surveyed areas with
gardens with mature perennial vegetation.
in
all
When
interviewed about
owners.
pahns an economic windfaU for their
Kitul are
management 89%
garden practices, of
and
growth requirements forest
tree species
EVERETT
No. 2
Vol.
166 15,
needs no The remaining gardeners
the respondents said the kitul attention at all.
said that they might occasionally spread leaf or household compost under the palms
common
marked garden
enhance growth. This a contrast to other trees
to their
is
and
and shrubs that produce a cash crop, such as coffee (Coffea arabica C. robusta)
from
and cloves {Eugenia caryophylla). These are usually raised seed, or increas-
from packeted seedlings purchased or provided as a subsidy from govern-
ingly
when
and
ment extension programs. They require watering young, receive regu-
maintenance inputs, sometimes including chemical fertiUzers.
lar
SUGAR
TAPPING PALMS FOR
phloem
growth stem apex (Corner This sap or ''sweet
of the or inflorescence 1966).
down
produce syrup
toddy"
to
is
t
raw
sugar.
some The tapping
Unlike other sugar palms, kitul is not easy to tap. process of
and
and
the sensitive flower maintaining the flow of sweet sap requires skill
kitul
A
emerged
experience. specialized occupational caste of tappers has as a tradi-
some
tional cottage industry of sugar and alcohol producers in Sri Lanka, In areas,
unique between palm owners and tappers developed.
a of tenure relationships
set
many
In the past, tapping was a major source of income for people in the low-
Many
lands, particularly in villages bordering the forest. tappers traditionally
gleaned toddy from palms day tapping inside the
their inside the forest. Present
Sinharaja forest has been described recently (De Zoysa 1992). Today, the forests are
palm
owned would-be
government
and, as large areas are classified as reserves,
must
tappers have
a license.^
In the highlands, a different culture of tapping has emerged. Typically there will
known who palms
be several people in each village as tappers tap of the in their
all
owned In
neighborhood. Here palms found gardens. this
the are in privately forest
When
the
palm appraoches flowering,
case, the tree belongs to the landowner. a
owner toddy production,
notifies a tapper. In general, from the time of the sweet
first
and owner by days.
the tapper the then share the yield equally alternating
tree's
and
The some among tappers
process of tapping varies in specifics individual
De based pre-
between regions Zoysa The following descriptions are
1992).
(e.g.,
my
edge of
dominantly upon Welimada the
interviews with tappers in the area at
of
the kitul range in the Intermediate climatic zone of the highlands (elevations
m mm
over 1,000 and average below 2,000 per annum).
rainfall
while
The
tappers' in maximizing the sap flow to the inflorescence
skill lies
When be-
retarding flower extension. a palm about to flower, the inflorescence
is
comes About two months young inflorescence first
visible in the tree top. after a
the
emerges, the tapper climbs the palm and carefully removes the outer layers of
are
sheath or spathe protecting the flowers. As discussed below, tapping activities
under the
typically carried out by men. The tapper a forked stick into place
ties
cuts
he gently
inflorescence to replace the spathe's supportive function. Next,
and
removes the inflo-
the very hard, protective spathe layers covering
interior
rescence. Tappers say that the number of layers indicates the number of individ-
The
ual flowers to come from the inflorescence, ranging from one to twelve. tap-
Y
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOG
Winter 995 67
1 1
cm cm cm
makes and deep
per a roughly 15 long, 5 wide, 2 incision in the side of
the flower.
The
Tappers apply a special "medicine" in this cut to stimulate sap flow. exact
Welimada
recipe for the medicine the individual tapper's secret. In the area, the
is
mustard
ingredients include pepper, garlic, seed, ginger, cloves, co-
chilies, salt,
conut grounds, and vinegar. lime, saffron, and lime juice are used
citrus fruit, Salt,
ground
w
packs
palm
with from the inside of the
fluffy fibers
The
medicine's function to "soften" the flowers.
is
with
Once he has applied the paste, the tapper gently taps the flower stalk a
He
and
between the stem the incision. inserts
mallet bruise the area
to
cial
made from wood, or bamboo on top and on the two sides
needles citrus
kitul,
;e
More
he flower between the palm stem and the hole. of the medicinal paste is
and wraps them around
2ad over this area. Next, he takes strips of cloth tightly
and up Agave or coconut twine are
flower base over the incision. fiber, kitul,
cm
30-40 from
wra pped around Then he places four long sticks cut
the
cloth.
them
give the
on each side of the flower, tying tightly to inflores-
stalks
wind
cm
cm cm and Again
wide, 2 deep.
lone, 3
bamboo,
applies the medicine in the hole and carefully inserts a needle of citrus,
The with
hole tightly sealed
or through the flower at the incision point. is
kitul
wraps
fluffy To keep the flower stalk from further flowering, the tapper cloth
fiber.
around Then he cuts off the end of the inflorescence (about
tightly the inflorescence.
cUmbs
Three days the tapper the tree again
30 cm) and sap flows out. later
a bit of
The day
tapper
next the
and from the end of the inflorescence.
cuts a thin
slice
cm from
shoot emerging the cut, or the
checks work. he finds a small /2 if
his 1
If
on
has succeeded. the other
tapper
the If
cut covered with small droplets of sap,
is
and must
has repairs
hand, longer shoot has emerged, then the treatment failed
a
soaked water
tapper takes three needles in salt
be undertaken. In the latter case, the
them
more
waits for three
and
mesh keep out msects squirrels
pot covered with wire to
successful, a clay
is
by with or coconut coir
tying kitul
hung below the end of the inflorescence it
is
the end of the inflorescence
rope The tapper then cuts a thin slice off
to the leaves.
morning and
the
He cUmbs twice daily in the early in late
every evening. the tree
empty which with sweet toddy in the interim.
afternoon the pot
to fills
with geographic
considerably lo-
The quahty and quantity of sap flow differs
unstudied genetic variation
quaUty and probably with as yet
cation, season,
site
two
with tappers and farmers in climatic
based on interviews
in the pahns. Results
and give higher yields in the
sooner
pahns begin flower
regions indicate that to
Welimada (Table
Kotmale area than in the area 1).
have high
yields.
circimiference
pahns with a large
According farmers,
to
and near water have
Thus and stem form better than tall thin. Kitul
short thick
is
compost produce high yields but
on with
more Palms
sap but watery. rich soil
it is
EVERETT
No. 2
Vol.
168 15,
—
TABLE and
Comparison of flowering yields in different climatic
1. kitul
regions.
Average Flowering Average Sap Yield
Rainfall
(mm) Age ml
Region (750 bottles)
(years)
=
Kotmale (n 17) 3,607 11 13
Welimada = 7
(n 10) 1,610 16
good from lower on harsher Tap-
the toddy's flavor not as as yielding trees sites.
is
up
and commonly grows
pers interviewed said that while shade tolerant
kitul is
through the understory to reach the canopy at maturity, a sunny location, especially
shows
morning
with early light, enhances the quality of the sap. Elsewhere, research
(Nonis
soUs rich in carbonate of lime to be particularly suitable for kitul 1989).
Tappers suggest that will yield throughout the year, but the best quality
kitul
sap flows in the dry season, though the flower more brittle and applying medi-
is
cine tricky at this time.^ During periods of high humidity and rain, the supply
is
of sap increases noticeably. Informants said that sap flow can be a weather indica-
However, the rainy season nectar watery and more needed to produce a
tor. is is
good
quality syrup.
There are other influences which affect sweet toddy yields. Lightning strikes
new
and strong winds can break the flowers. Bumblebees often eat the shoots of
and One cow dung
remedy
leaves flowers. indigenous for bees to take a ball of
is
dung
mixed with and around The the
hair place the shoots. bees are attracted to
it
but then entangle themselves in the hair and can be removed. In or near natural
some-
forests, monkeys can compete with tappers for the sweet nectar. Tappers
times hang below toddy monkeys.
traps their pots to snare
supernatural
Tappers also take certain precautions to avert the influence of
Many
forces from their palms. believe that the "evil eye" or a greedy look at a flow-
monks,
ering tree can stop the toddy flow, Pirith water, blessed by Buddhist is
on and made problem. Before
sprinkled the flower preclude
recitations are to this
and
may Hindu gods
climbing a palm, the tappers invoke the locally worshipped
make
the Buddha. Tappers bless and chant over the knife with which they inci-
beHeve
The made which tappers
sions in the kitul flower. knife never of iron, the
is
would
stop nectar flows.
AND
PROCESSING SWEET TODDY TO SYRUP SUGAR
gen-
Household labor used produce syrup and sugar divided along
to
kitul is
Men
der lines. climb palms and tap flowers, women process the sweet toddy to
palms
syrup. Every morning and evening toddy brought home from the
the fresh
is
few
and handed over to the women. The fresh toddy sweet, but in the course of a
is
hours begins to ferment and becomes cloudy, going completely sour in 24 hours.
it
when
Processing the toddy into syrup pre-empts fermentation. Alternatively,
this
may
alcohoUc beverages end be allowed to fer-
are the desired product, the nectar
ment Women
usually
to the mildly "toddy" be are
alcoholic or further
distilled.
JOURNAL OF ETHNOBIOLOGY
Winter 1995 169
women
norms
less involved in processing for alcohol, as social against drinking or
many
even being exposed to alcohol production and consumption are strong in
communities.
rural
When woman
morning
producing sugar the or evening, a the fresh
in filters
toddy and pours into a clay pot. She places the pot on a hot, fast burning
fire.
it
When
skimmed
foam begins to appear on the surface of the liquid, off with a
it is
spoon. Once the foam has been removed, she blends that toddy with any remain-
ing sweet toddy supply From then on she keeps a low going and the pot
fire stirs
down. The
about every 20 minutes as the nectar boils exact proportions of nectar
and assessment
to syrup vary with the quality of nectar the individual family's of
Welimada
//good" syrup. In an 11-week yield study of one household in the area,
produced one syrup (roughly
average six bottles of nectar bottle of 0.75 liters).
1
Kotmale villages people most commonly spoke of a low 1:8 ratio of syrup to
L
wisdom produce lower but higher
ddy. the local holds that drier sites yields
If
this low ratio of syrup to toddy from the wetter Kotmale area is to be ex-
lality,
When
hours.
process takes 2.5 to 3.5
filine
mto
months
keep three
will for
down
may
or
syrup be further boiled to create "jaggery,"
Ahernatively, the
crystallized palm sugar. In this case, once the syrup stage is reached, the fire is re-
Once
duced low flame and the syrup stkred every five minutes or so. ap-
to a is it
and
syrup pulled off the continuously
proaches the desired viscosity, the is fire
and poured molds hard-
As syrup thickens finally into for
stirred. cools, the is
it
Two
hakuru halves
ening. The traditional mold a coconut half-shell, called a essa.
is
home
make a hakuru mula. Scrapings from the pot can be rolled into small balls for
was
consumption. The informants' estimates (averaged for the yield study) that
pahn The
would produce one bottle of syrup or 525 g of sugar.
sbc bottles of nectar
A
6.9%
the longer will keep. content of
lower the moisture content of the sugar, it
(Nonis
moisture commercially permissible 1989).
is
sweet toddy ferments into a
mto syrup or sugar within a day,
not boiled
If
known toddy toddy always
This
mildly beer-like beverage also as is
alcoholic,
by
was Additional over toddy,
same day tapped.
drunk left
in the evening of the it
much
higher
sometimes crudely distilled into a
time fermenting
rapidly,
this is
known
stemming from
mar
and order tax
also in to
during
control the fermentation process distilling,
homemade
and liquor without license h
production sale of
keting of alcohol, the
weU known com
the
and imposed on moonshiners are heavy. Arrack,
illegal fines
though more carefuUy controUed fer
mercial pahn produced in a similar,
liquor,
is
palm
commonly from coconut toddy.
most
mentation and process,
distillation
ECONOMIC POTENTIAL
THE
TIMATING
AND
SUGAR
OF SYRUP
KITUL
economic
potential
The major be taken into account in assessing the
factors to
product for a given
average yield of salable cli-
producers the
of kitul for local are
and
which primarily consist of labor
and and marketing
mate, production costs,
EVERETT No. 2
Vol.
15,
170
with
fuelwood Estimates of gross yield value are presented here for areas
inputs.
and Welimada
two Kotmale wet) (higher elevation
different climates, (relatively
and also discuss the valuation of input costs in the areas studied.
drier).
I
toddy and syrup
As sweet
palm day.— noted above, yields of
Average per per
yield
which
by and Nonis cases in 20 bottles
vary considerably region. (1989) cites
site
(750 ml per bottle) of sap flow from one pahn in one twelve hour period. Other es-
day— pahn
probably from with sev-
timates mclude a high of 12 gallons (45 per a
1)
(McCurrach and 7-14 24 hours from an average flower (Cor-
flowers in
eral 1960),
1
gleaned from interviews
approximates the estimates
ner This closely
1966). latter I
m
day As
who 10-15 per
with people the Kotmale area, indicated yields of bottles
around
Welimada
area are lower,
indicated above, the estimated sap yields for the
7 per
bottles day.
Kotmale
per day
Assuming that one flower produces 2.5 bottles of sap in
1
then
and 7 bottles in Mirahawatte, and that one bottle is equivalent to 750 ml, in
and Mirahawatte Tappers' re-
Kotmale daily sap yield in 5.3 Uters.
is 9.4 liters,
from
syrup
on syrup Kotmale were one bottle of
sponses estimated yields for
Thus
eight bottles of sap; for Mirahawatte one bottle of syrup from six of sap. es-
day
and per
timated, daily syrup yields are per day for Kotmale 0.9 liters
1 .2 liters
Welimada
An
has three
average
discounted kiiul
months, or roughly
three
flowering
palm. The syrup an average palm during the course of
total yield for its
Kotmale estimated be 324 WeHmada 243 At the average 1990 price of
in to in
is
1.
1,
and
Kotmale Rs.
Rs 53.3 per the gross value per pahn would be Rs. 17,269 in
liter,
present
Welimada The value per palm discoimted to the
12,952 in the area. gross
would be
bank 10% Bank Lanka 1989)
using the 1988 interest rate of (Central of Sri
gross
Kotmale and WeUmada. Considering that per capita
Rs. 6,059 in Rs. 2,749 in
one
only
national product for Sri Lanka in 1988 was Rs. 11,939 (Ibid.) the value of
many
palms.
palm As most gardens have
indeed significant. noted above, forest
is
per house-
In Kotmale, the average nimiber of was 18 of varying age classes
kitul
palms
mature
with
hold. the palms are distributed evenly across age classes,
If
an
would have aver-
bearing between the ages of and 20 years, each household
1 1
on rough estimates
age of one mature palm per These calculations are based
year.
when economic
and are intended only convey the pahns' high potential value
to
appUed.
analyses
are
—
two key
The
economy
Input costs. ^Input costs in this rural are difficult to assess.
syrup production fuelwood and Estimates from a series of trial
costs in are labor.
one
show produce liter
fuelwood
tests that takes about 0.25 cubic meters of to
it
For
of syrup or 700 of jaggery Lokuge, personal communication, 1991).
gr. (Ajit
from
women hardwoods
boiling syrup, good quality firewood; mixes of
select
common. the
mango In
and
fruit trees such as jak (Artocarpus heterophylla) are
most gar-
study one more forest
areas, or of these species are easily available in
firewood
Survey 75-100%
dens. results for this area indicate that of village
prun-
bush
comes by
from private forest gardens, with the remainder supplied
