Table Of ContentTHE INTERACTION BETWEEN LAND USE TRANSFORMATION AND
CRIME INCIDENCE IN DANDORA, NAIROBI, KENYA
ROMANUS OTIENO OPIYO
A thesis submitted in fulfilment for the Award of the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in Urban and Regional Planning at the School of the Built Environment, University of
Nairobi
2014
Declaration
I declare that this thesis is my original research work and it has not been submitted
previously in part or whole to any university for award of any degree.
_________________ ___________________
Romanus Otieno Opiyo Date:
(Candidate)
This thesis has been submitted for examinations with our approval as Supervisors
_________________ ___________________
Prof. Peter M. Ngau Date:
Department of Urban and Regional Planning (DURP)
(Supervisor)
_______________ ___________________
Prof. Winnie V. Mitullah Date:
Institute for Development Studies (IDS)
(Supervisor)
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Dedication
I would like to dedicate this work to my parents Aloys and Mary Opiyo for the
unwavering support and care they have offered to me throughout my life. I owe my
perseverance and humble pursuant of success in life to you.
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Acknowledgement
I am indebted to all individuals, groups and institutions that assisted in making this
work a success. My appreciation goes to the University of Nairobi administration for
the waiver of fees, which enabled me to enrol and undertake this study with a lighter
financial burden. I am also grateful for the support accorded to me by Volkswagen
Foundation through U-CARE project which boosted my fieldwork and data
collection.
I am grateful to the colleagues at the School of the Built Environment and the entire
University staff for all the support they accorded me in undertaking this study. In
particular, I am grateful to my supervisors, Prof. Peter Ngau and Prof. Winnie
Mitullah, for their tireless guidance and support in developing this project from
scratch to its conclusion. I would also like to thank Prof. Olima who is Kenya’s U-
CARE project coordinator for his critique and comments whenever he had
opportunity to have a look at my work and for coordinating financial remittance from
the U-CARE project administrators. I am also appreciative of Prof. Paul Syagga and
Prof. Robert Rukwaro for creating time to read my work within a short period of time
and their insightful comments.
My appreciation also goes to Prof. Kosta Mathey and Dr. Peter Gotsch, the U-CARE
project Director and Coordinator respectively for the financial support courtesy of
Volkswagen Foundation and their consistent inputs and exposure; the entire U-CARE
project team, Prof. Allan Mabin of University of Witwatersrand, South Africa and
Prof. Francois Kegne of University of Yaoundé 1 Cameroon, Dr. Claude Ngomsi of
UN- Habitat, Safer Cities Programme. My fellow U-CARE project supported PhD
candidates Obvious Katsaura of Zimbabwe and Christophe Sados of Cameroon are
also appreciated. Our close working relationship made our various tasks much more
enjoyable and manageable.
This work could not have been complete without the input of various respondents
namely the City County of Nairobi officers both at City Hall and Dandora’s HDD,
Nairobi Provincial Police Office particularly Mr. Julius Ndegwa, Buruburu Police
Division represented by the OCPD Mr. Kipkemoi Rop and the Dandora OCPP Mr.
Samson Ogero, as well as the area chief and assistant chiefs. It is also important to
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mention the contribution of residents in general, various enterprises and Dandora’s
Community Policing Committee for providing useful information needed for
completion of this work. I would also like to extend my gratitude to my research
assistants Fawcett Komollo, Dennis Mwaniki, Charles Baraka, Daniel Koech and my
colleagues Mildred Ambani and Eunice Okoth for their inputs in data collection, map
work, editing and data entry; and my colleagues James Murimi and Charles Karisa for
creating time for discussions on analysis and methods and assistance in formatting the
thesis document
Last, but not least I am indebted to my family including my wife Rosemary
Adhiambo and my daughters Lauryn Akinyi and Leandra Akoth for their moral
support throughout the study. My parents Aloys Opiyo and Mary Akinyi for the
encouragement and support, concern and care they have given me throughout my
academic life and may God continue to shower them with his love and blessings.
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Abstract
The link between the social and physical environment and violent crime occurrence
and response is a complex one, which is not well explored. This study examines the
interaction between land use transformation and violent crime incidence in Dandora,
Nairobi, which is one of the most crime ridden neighbourhoods in the City. This is
done in order to explain how land use related transformation underlies the complex
spatial-social interaction of a place in relation to crime incidence. Currently, there are
conflicting theoretical standpoints which relate certain land uses and densities to
creation or inhibition of natural surveillance and dilution of social capital which
determine crime response. Multi-contextual theory which combines routine activity
and social disorganization theories is applied in this study since it enhances
understanding of crime in relation to the interaction of people. It links the changing
characteristics of a place informed by the type of land use and associated dynamics
guiding various activities in the area with people’s behaviour either individually or
collectively.
This study was guided by a quasi-experimental research design informed by the types
of land use and subsequent changes in land use in relation to crime incidence in the
area, and impact of land use on crime incidence and coping mechanisms. The study
utilized secondary data and 144 systematic random sampled household interviews,
121 stratified sampled business person interviews, 10 Key informant interviews and 3
in-depth interviews with residents and one focus group discussion with the
Community Policing Committee members purposively sampled. Multi-criteria
analysis approach was adopted in data analysis and discussion of the findings.
The study findings indicate that infiltration of the Dandora neighbourhood project by
speculative developers in the mid 1980s and the unregulated construction sector is the
genesis of land use transformation. Other determinant factors and drivers since then
are weak institutional capacity to manage and control development, housing demand
and insecurity. Dandora Phase 4 is found to be the most transformed and Phase 1 the
least transformed. The unregulated land use transformation serves to weaken the
wider community cohesion and heighten socio-cultural and spatial segregation of
residents. The study findings give credence to routine activity and social
disorganization theories which are used to operationalize multi-contextual theory.
This is based on the fact that transformation in Dandora is facilitating anonymity of
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space use and weakening social capital. The transformation of the neighbourhood
development does not support eye on the street and defensible space principle.
The study findings also indicate that transformation has negative implications on
crime response mechanisms. The working and popular mechanisms of crime
prevention were individually driven as opposed to communal. This may be attributed
to perceptions and stereotypes of different ethnic groups, which leads to exclusion of
others in community driven initiatives including community policing. The study
concludes that land use transformation leads to variation in crime by 6.023 times. The
study recommends mainstreaming of urban safety in planning, design and
implementation of neighbourhood development. This may require that the City
Planning Department expands its range of indicators and factors considered when
approving plans to include safety measures. Land use planning and crime response
mechanisms should take into account the unique features of crime distribution along
land use by regularly profiling various land uses together with their designs and
orientations and monitoring their functions in relation to crime incidence in
neighbourhoods and in general urban spaces.
Keywords: Transformation, crime incidence, land use, planning, social capital, and
surveillance
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Table of Content
Declaration.................................................................................................................i
Dedication.................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgement....................................................................................................iii
Abstract.....................................................................................................................v
Table of Content......................................................................................................vii
LIST OF FIGURES..................................................................................................xi
LIST OF TABLES..................................................................................................xii
LIST OF PLATES...................................................................................................xii
LIST OF MAPS.....................................................................................................xiii
LIST OF BOXES...................................................................................................xiv
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS..................................................xv
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION....................................................................1
1.1 Background to the study......................................................................................1
1.2 Statement of the Research Problem......................................................................7
1.3 Overall Objectives...............................................................................................9
1.3.1 Specific Objectives...........................................................................................9
1.4 Research Questions..............................................................................................9
1.5 Research Hypothesis............................................................................................9
1.5.1 Study Hypotheses, Variables and Respective Indicators:.................................10
1.6 Significance and Justification of the Study.........................................................10
1.6.1 Significance of the Study................................................................................10
1.6.2 Justification of the Study.................................................................................12
1.7 Operationalization of Key Terms.......................................................................14
1.8 Organization of the Study..................................................................................21
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW......................................................25
2.0 Introduction.......................................................................................................25
2.1 Urban Crime......................................................................................................25
2.2 Causes of Crime Incidences...............................................................................28
2.2.1 Economic Causes of Violence.........................................................................30
2.2.2 Political Causes of Violence............................................................................31
2.2.3 Social Causes of Violence...............................................................................32
2.2.4 Institutional Causes of Violence......................................................................33
2.2.5 Physical Causes of Violence...........................................................................34
2.3 Land Use Transformation.............................................................................34
2.3.1 Drivers of Land Use Transformation...............................................................35
2.3.2 Land Use Transformation in Nairobi...............................................................37
2.3.3 Drivers of Land Use Transformation in Nairobi..............................................42
2.4 Urban Planning Policy and Crime......................................................................44
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2.5 Legal and Policy Framework Guiding Land Use Planning and Development in
Kenya......................................................................................................................48
2.5.1 Legal Framework Impacts on Land Use Transformation and Planning............54
2.6 Crime Incidences and Impacts in Kenya.............................................................56
2.6.1 Crime Incidences in Nairobi............................................................................60
2.7 Crime Response Approaches and Initiatives.......................................................65
2.7.1 Crime Response and Prevention in Kenya and Nairobi....................................70
2.8 Reforms in Security Sector and Crime Intervention in Kenya.............................74
2.9 Theoretical Framework................................................................................76
2.9.1 Compositional Theories..................................................................................77
2.9.2 Routine Activity Theory.................................................................................78
2.9.3 Defensible Space and Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design
(CPTED).................................................................................................................79
2.9.4 Situational Crime Prevention and Social Disorganization Theory....................80
2.9.5 Space Syntax and Sociological Theories.........................................................81
2.10 Conceptual Framework....................................................................................84
CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY.............................................................89
3.0 Introduction.......................................................................................................89
3.1 Research Design................................................................................................89
3.1.1 Modified Quasi-Experimental Research Design..............................................92
3.2 Population and Sampling Design.......................................................................92
3.2.1. Population......................................................................................................92
3.2.2. Sampling Design and Sample Size.................................................................93
3.2.3 Sampling Procedure and Size..........................................................................93
3.2.4 Units of Observation and Analysis..................................................................96
3.3 Data Collection Methods...................................................................................97
3.3.1 Structured Questionnaire.................................................................................98
3.3.2 In-depth Personal interviews...........................................................................99
3.3.3 Focus Group Discussion (FGD)....................................................................100
3.3.4 Direct Observation........................................................................................100
3.3.5 Land Use Mapping........................................................................................100
3.3.6 Participatory Mapping and Transect walks....................................................101
3.3.7 Library research and documentation..............................................................101
3.3.8 Photographs and Sketches.............................................................................101
3.4 Data Analysis.............................................................................................103
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3.4.1 Spatial Data Analysis and presentation..........................................................104
3.4.2 Content Analysis...........................................................................................105
3.4.3 Historical Analysis........................................................................................105
3.4.4 Hypothesis Testing.......................................................................................105
CHAPTER FOUR: BACKGROUND ON DANDORA.....................................108
4.1 Historical Development of Dandora...........................................................108
4.2 Objectives of the Project............................................................................111
4.3 Institutional and Legal Framework.............................................................112
4.3.1 Legal Framework...................................................................................114
4.4 Planning and Housing................................................................................115
4.4.1 Housing Typology........................................................................................121
4.5 Target Group and Affordability..................................................................122
4.6 Population and Demographic Characteristics..............................................124
4.6.1 Population Growth Trends............................................................................124
4.6.2 Population Composition................................................................................125
4.7 Public and Community Facilities and Services in Dandora.........................127
4.7.1 Transportation...............................................................................................127
4.7.2 Dandora Dumping Site..................................................................................129
4.7.3 Electricity Power Lines.................................................................................130
4.7.4 Educational Facilities....................................................................................130
4.7.5 Health Facilities............................................................................................131
4.7.6 Religious Facilities.......................................................................................132
4.7.7 Social and Community Halls.........................................................................132
4.7.8 Police Station................................................................................................133
4.8 Land Use Transformations.........................................................................133
4.8.1 Land Use Transformation Determining Factors.............................................136
4.8.2 Summary on Land use Transformation..........................................................137
CHAPTER FIVE: RESIDENTIAL CHARACTER AND CONTEXT OF LAND
USE TRANSFORMATION IN DANDORA......................................................139
5.1: Respondents Background................................................................................139
5.1.1 Distribution of Household Respondents........................................................139
5.1.2 Entrepreneurs Characteristics........................................................................147
5.2 LAND USE AND TRANSFORMATION........................................................154
5.3 Emerging Pattern of Land Use Types...............................................................155
5.4 Nature of Land Use Transformation.................................................................159
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