Table Of ContentThe Imperial College Lectures in
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Topics in Reservoir Management
Volume
3
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The Imperial College Lectures in
PETROLEUM ENGINEERING
Topics in Reservoir Management
Volume
3
Deryck Bond
Kuwait Oil Company, Kuwait
Samuel Krevor
Imperial College London, UK
Ann Muggeridge
Imperial College London, UK
David Waldren
Petroleum Consulting and Training (PCT) Ltd, UK
Robert Zimmerman
Imperial College London, UK
World Scientific
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Published by
World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
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Head office: 5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Muggeridge, Ann.
Title: Topics in reservoir management / by Ann Muggeridge (Imperial College London, UK),
Sam Krevor (Imperial College London, UK), Robert Zimmerman
(Imperial College London, UK), Deryck Bond (Kuwait Oil Company, Kuwait),
David Waldren (Petroleum Consulting and Training (PCT) Ltd, UK).
Description: [Hackensack] New Jersey : World Scientific, 2017. | Series: The Imperial College
lectures in petroleum engineering ; volume 3 | Based on lectures that have been given in the
world-renowned Imperial College Masters Course in Petroleum Engineering.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016055436 | ISBN 9781786342843 (hc : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Oil reservoir engineering. | Oil fields--Production methods. |
Petroleum industry and trade--Management.
Classification: LCC TN870.57 .M84 2017 | DDC 622/.3382--dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016055436
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Copyright © 2018 by World Scientific Publishing Europe Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
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Desk Editors: Dipasri Sardar/Mary Simpson/Shi Ying Koe/Jennifer Brough
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Email: [email protected]
Printed in Singapore
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Preface
This book is the third volume of a set of lecture notes based on the
Master of Science course in Petroleum Engineering that is taught
within theDepartment of EarthScience andEngineeringat Imperial
CollegeLondon.ThePetroleumEngineeringMScisaone-yearcourse
thatcomprisesthreecomponents:(a)asetoflecturesonthedifferent
topics that constitute the field of petroleum engineering, along with
associatedhomeworkassignmentsandexaminations;(b)agroupfield
project in which the class is broken up into groups of about six
students, who then use data from an actual reservoir to develop the
field from the initial appraisal based on seismic and geological data,
all the way through to eventual abandonment; and (c) a 14-week
individual project, in which each student investigates a specific
problem and writes a small “thesis” in the format of an SPE paper.
The Petroleum Engineering MSc course has been taught at
Imperial College since 1976, and has trained over a thousand
petroleum engineers. The course is essentially a “conversion course”
that aims to take students who have an undergraduate degree in
some area of engineering or physical science, but not necessarily
any specific experience in petroleum engineering, and train them
to the point at which they can enter the oil and gas industry as
petroleum engineers. Although the incoming cohort has included
students with undergraduate degrees in fields as varied as physics,
mathematics, geology, and electrical engineering, the “typical” stu-
dent on the course has an undergraduate degree in chemical or
v
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vi Topics in Reservoir Management
mechanical engineering, and little if any prior exposure to petroleum
engineering. Although some students do enter the course having
had some experience in the oil industry, the course is intended to
be self-contained, and prior knowledge of petroleum engineering or
geology is not a prerequisite for any of the lecture modules.
The complete set of lecture notes will eventually consist of about
a half-dozen different volumes, covering topics such as petroleum
geology, fluid flow in porous media, well test analysis, reservoir
engineering, andcoreanalysis. Thepresentvolumecontains chapters
on four topics that fall under the rubric of “reservoir management”:
rock properties, enhanced oil recovery, reservoir simulation, and
history matching. Each chapter has been written by a lecturer who
is either an academic based at Imperial College, or a practitioner
working in the oil industry, and who has taught these and other
modules within the Imperial College MSc course for many years.
Althoughthevolumesarelecturenotes,andconsequently donotaim
to achieve encyclopaedic coverage, or to contain extensive reference
lists, taken as a whole they contain the basic knowledge needed to
prepare students to work as reservoir engineers in the oil and gas
industry.
Robert W. Zimmerman
Imperial College London
July 2017
August23,2017 14:34 TopicsinReservoirManagement-9inx6in b2764-fm pagevii
About the Authors
Deryck Bond holds BSc and PhD degrees in Physics from Imperial
CollegeLondon.Hehasworkedinresearch,reservoirengineeringand
petroleumengineeringfunctionsforanumberofmajorandmid-sized
oil companies and as an independent consultant. He has contributed
to the Petroleum Engineering MSc program at Imperial College. He
is currentlyaSeniorConsultantworkingontheGreater Burhanfield
for Kuwait Oil Company.
Samuel C. Krevor is a Senior Lecturer in the Department of
Earth Science and Engineering at Imperial College London. His
research group investigates the physics and chemistry of processes
of multiphase flow in engineered and natural geological systems. He
received his BSc, MSc, and PhD in Environmental Engineering from
Columbia University.
AnnH.MuggeridgeholdstheChairinReservoirPhysicsandEOR
in the Department of Earth Sciences and Engineering at Imperial
College London.Her research interests are focussedon the numerical
modellingandupscalingof reservoir flowswithaparticular emphasis
on enhanced oil recovery processes (including miscible gas injection,
low salinity waterflooding, polymer flooding, steam injection and
Vapour Extraction (VAPEX)) and the impact of geological hetero-
geneity on those processes. She is also interested in the mixing of
reservoir fluids after reservoir filling but before production as an
vii
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viii Topics in Reservoir Management
indicator ofreservoir compartmentalization. ShehasaBSc(Hons) in
Physics from Imperial College and a DPhil in Atmospheric Physics
from the University of Oxford. She worked for 5 years at BP and
4 years at SSI (UK) Ltd as a reservoir engineering and reservoir
simulationspecialistbeforejoiningImperialCollege.Sheisamember
of theEAGE andtheSPE,chairingtheorganizing committee forthe
EAGE IOR Symposium 2017 and 2015 and sitting on the organizing
committee fortheSPEReservoirSimulationSymposium2017. Sheis
also anInterPoreCouncilmemberandsits ontheScientificAdvisory
Committee for the National IOR Centre of Norway.
David Waldren is director of Petroleum Consulting and Training
LimitedandaVisitingProfessortotheCentreforPetroleumStudies,
Department of Earth Science and Engineering, Imperial College
London.Hehasbeenaconsultingreservoirengineerforover25years,
previously having been with BNOC, Intercomp, and IPEC. He is
recognised worldwide for his reservoir management and simulation
advice. He has a PhD in particle physics from Liverpool University.
Robert W. Zimmerman obtained a BS and MS in mechanical
engineering from Columbia University, and a PhD in rock mechanics
from the University of California at Berkeley. He has been a lecturer
at UC Berkeley, a staff scientist at the Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory, and Head of the Division of Engineering Geology and
Geophysics at the Royal Institute of Technology (KTH) in Stock-
holm. He is the Editor-in-Chief of the International Journal of Rock
Mechanics and Mining Sciences, and serves on the Editorial Boards
of Transport in Porous Mediaand theInternational Journal of Engi-
neering Science. He is the author of the monograph Compressibility
of Sandstones (Elsevier, 1991), and co-author, with JC Jaeger and
NGW Cook, of Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics (4th edn., Wiley-
Blackwell, 2007). He is currently Professor of Rock Mechanics at
Imperial College, where he conducts research on rock mechanics and
fracturedrockhydrology,withapplicationstopetroleumengineering,
underground mining, carbon sequestration, and radioactive waste
disposal.
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Contents
Preface v
About the Authors vii
Chapter 1. Introduction to Rock Properties 1
Robert W. Zimmerman
1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Porosity and Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.1 Definition of Porosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2.2 Heterogeneity and “Representative Elementary
Volume” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.2.3 Saturation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Permeability and Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.1 Darcy’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3.2 Units of Permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.3.3 Relationship between Permeability and
Pore Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3.4 Permeability of Layered Rocks . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.3.5 Permeability Heterogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.4 Surface Tension, Wettability and Capillarity . . . . . . . 18
1.4.1 Surface Tension. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.4.2 Capillary Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.4.3 Contact Angles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
ix
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x Topics in Reservoir Management
1.4.4 Capillary Rise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.4.5 Oil–Water Transition Zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.4.6 Leverett J-Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.5 Two-Phase Flow and Relative Permeability . . . . . . . 32
1.5.1 Concept of Relative Permeability . . . . . . . . . 32
1.5.2 Irreducible Saturations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.6 Electrical Resistivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
1.7 Fluid and Pore Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.7.1 Fluid Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.7.2 Pore Compressibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Chapter 2. Introduction to Enhanced Recovery
Processes for Conventional Oil
Production 47
Samuel C. Krevor and Ann H. Muggeridge
2.1 Introduction: Definition, Techniques and the Global
Role of EOR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.1 The Aims of this Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.1.2 Definitions and Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
2.1.3 The Role of EOR in Current and Future Global
Oil Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2.2 Enhancing the Recovery Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.1 The Recovery Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2.2.2 Limits on Microscopic Displacement
Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2.3 Limits on Macroscopic Displacement
Efficiency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.3 Gas Injection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.3.1 Phase Equilibrium for Gas Drives . . . . . . . . . 68
2.3.2 Transport in Two-Phase Multi-Component
Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
