Table Of ContentThe Global Challenge of
Militias and Paramilitary
Violence
Paul Rexton Kan
The Global Challenge of Militias
and Paramilitary Violence
“Paul R. Kan offers an authoritative assessment of the increasingly important role
that militias play in global security. Much has been written about terrorists and
insurgents, but Kan’s book fills a critical gap in the literature by offering an
overview of militia group characteristics, capabilities, and the threats they pose
both now and in the future. This book is highly recommended for scholars and
policymakers attempting to understand the diversity of violent non-state actors.”
—Colin P. Clarke, Senior Research Fellow, The Soufan Center, USA
“The work sets a new standard with regard to analysis of the impact of militias and
paramilitaries—both understudied groups in contemporary conflict—on global
stability and state fragility.”
—Robert J. Bunker, former Minerva Chair, Strategic Studies Institute,
US Army War College, USA
Paul Rexton Kan
The Global Challenge
of Militias and
Paramilitary Violence
Paul Rexton Kan
National Security Studies
U.S. Army War College
Carlisle, PA, USA
ISBN 978-3-030-13015-2 ISBN 978-3-030-13016-9 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13016-9
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019933189
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive licence to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2019
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the
Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of
translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on
microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this
publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are
exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in
this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher
nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material
contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains
neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
Cover pattern © Harvey Loake
This Palgrave Pivot imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature
Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
P
reface
I knew writing this book would be difficult after my colleague read the
first draft of my introductory chapter and exclaimed, “I’m glad I’m not
writing on that topic; it’s like shoveling mercury.” Defining, describing,
and assessing militias have been conceptually slippery. Militias are often
tossed in the “remainder bin” of violent non-state actors who are not con-
sidered terrorists, insurgents, guerrillas, cartels, or gangs. This “other”
type of armed group has long been overlooked except by a few scholars
who have dedicated their intellectual rigor to specifically researching and
writing about militias. This book builds on the strong foundations that
these scholars and practitioners have lain by discussing how militias chal-
lenge international security.
I decided to write this book knowing that I would be on sabbatical
from the US Army War College. Sabbaticals are times to stretch intellectu-
ally and the topic of paramilitary violence is a departure from my work on
illicit trafficking, transnational organized crime, and their intersection
with armed conflict. I am grateful to a number of people who supported
me in my effort to grow as a scholar through writing this book. I am
indebted to Chris Flaherty who helped produce an excellent research bib-
liography for me to begin my intellectual journey. My colleagues Frank
Jones, Bill Johnsen, and Patrick Bratton were my intellectual guides and
coaches throughout the writing process. Colin Clarke at RAND has been
a big source of encouragement. Tamika Johnson and Leah Hohn at the
Army War College helped to preserve much of time away from my depart-
mental duties. Thanks are also due to Diane Chido who linked me up with
the Anca Pusca and Katelyn Zingg at Palgrave Pivot and gave my book a
v
vi PREFACE
publishing home. My intern Noah “Jumpstreet” Reighard was invaluable
in shaping and clarifying portions of my writing. My summer 2018 intern
Iva Shoemaker was helpful in developing the illicit trafficking section of
the book. For their moral support, I continue to be grateful to Erica
Briggs, Michael Powers, Kevin Rockwood, Nancy Sneed, Jeanette Moyer,
and Chrisi Arrighi who have seen me through the writing of all my book
projects. Angie Reighard, Lily Reighard, and Rick Galena boosted me
through some of the toughest parts of the writing process. Special thanks
are due to Laureen Lentz for her continued guidance. David Hamilton,
Kristen Compton, Jake Deacon, Kyle Oberle, and Matt Harlan at Burd’s
Nest Brewing Company helped keep me grounded. Thomas Laughman,
Jessi Ward, and their sons Sean and Carter reminded me that love and
hope are essential ingredients in a balanced life. My family back home in
Hawaii remains my North Star. To Elwyn, Monique, Kevin, Janae, and
Kiani, I can only say thank you for your love and support (mahalo i koʻu
ʻohana no ke aloha me ke kākoʻo).
Carlisle, PA Paul Rexton Kan
c
ontents
1 Introduction: Local Guardians with International Effects 1
2 Group Characteristics of Militias 27
3 Militias and State Stability 51
4 Militias, Crime, and Conflict 77
5 Militias and the Future 107
Index 129
vii
CHAPTER 1
Introduction: Local Guardians
with International Effects
Abstract The chapter discusses the definition of militias in the context of
violent non-state actors with the narrative of self-defense being key to
their emergence. The chapter covers the ways paramilitary groups have
emerged through history and why they have remained an important com-
ponent of security. The chapter also discusses how international relations
as a discipline has failed to incorporate these important actors into discus-
sions of international security.
Keywords Local guardians • Violent non-state actors • International
relations • Self-defense • International security
In the 2018 video game Far Cry 5, Joseph Seed, the fictional leader of a
violent religious movement, has organized an armed group in the imagi-
nary county of Hope, Montana, to prepare for the collapse of society and
to pave the road toward salvation. As members of the movement violently
compel residents of the county to join the group while murdering law
enforcement officers sent to arrest Seed, other residents of the county
form an armed resistance group to protect themselves. Players of the game
assume the role of a sheriff’s deputy who is part of a larger task force
aimed at putting down Seed’s group with the help of the newly formed
armed resistance group.
© The Author(s) 2019 1
P. R. Kan, The Global Challenge of Militias and Paramilitary
Violence, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-13016-9_1
2 P. R. KAN
Although Far Cry 5 encapsulates many aspects of militias and paramili-
tary violence, such as armed groups of civilians organizing to defend their
communities, it overlooks key features of how many real-world militias
across the globe can affect critical international peace and stability. Before
Far Cry 5 went into development, a pro-Russian militia in a rogue act shot
down a Malaysian Airlines jet from Holland over the skies of eastern
Ukraine in 2014, killing 298 people aboard. The subsequent investigation
determined that Russia, which had been supporting the militia as its proxy
force to stoke instability in Ukraine, provided the armed group with the
sophisticated surface-to-air missile used to destroy the aircraft.1 In
response, the European Union, the United States, and several other
nations implemented sanctions against the Russian government, increas-
ing tensions between Russia and the West to their highest point since the
Cold War.
Much like the pro-Russian militia in Ukraine, armed groups of civilians
in many countries challenge issues of politics, society, and security across
borders. Militias have long been parts of international relations and are
especially relevant in today’s global environment. By examining the variety
of ways that militias affect international security, this book demonstrates
the abiding relevance of these armed groups and highlights the challenges
that paramilitary violence poses around the world.
Militias and international security
Although often overlooked, militias are significant and prevalent actors in
the contemporary international security environment. In fact, only a small
fraction of the world’s population live in states that have highly profes-
sional and well-functioning militaries or police forces; people across most
of the globe live under the power and influence of militias and other vio-
lent non-state groups. One study counted over 200 active pro- government
militias, which are only a subset of this type of violent non-state group,
operating in 60 countries.2 Meanwhile, recent research indicates that the
internet is enabling the increasing emergence of new pro-government and
anti-government militias.3 The size of this type of armed group can range
from a few dozen to tens of thousands while operating in areas close to its
community or in distant regions in other countries.
The prevalence of militias across the globe is matched by their power to
influence international security. Pro-government militias were present in
81 percent of civil wars between 1981 and 2007.4 This type of violent
INTRODUCTION: LOCAL GUARDIANS WITH INTERNATIONAL EFFECTS 3
non-state group has been part of the strategic landscape in almost every
conflict where multinational military forces have been deployed in the
post–Cold War era and have, at times, shaped their outcomes. Somali
armed groups blunted US military might in the city of Mogadishu during
the infamous 1993 Black Hawk Down incident, precipitating a US with-
drawal from Somalia. In Iraq, numerous Shia militias imposed their will on
the streets of Bagdad in the aftermath of the 2003 US invasion, complicat-
ing the ability of the United States to secure the country. Moreover, the
deadliest conflicts of the twenty-first century thus far have featured militias
as key actors.5 Militias have contributed to the protraction of civil wars,
making them harder to bring to a conclusion and thus increasing human
suffering.6 Paramilitary violence has also involved large-scale human rights
abuses like ethnic cleansing and genocide.
Militias have proven useful to states in pursuing their foreign policy and
military objectives in other countries. States have created or supported
militias as their proxy forces in internal conflicts rather than introducing
their own conventional military forces into another state. This has often
led to rising tensions among the outside powers who support their respec-
tive militias and the potential for outside powers to be held responsible for
their militias’ rogue acts.
In many fragile states, militias are more militarily capable than the
established armed forces. Where rebels and dissident movements have
been able to challenge governmental authority, national leaders in these
states have relied on paramilitary groups to prop up the state. The Syrian
government empowered Shia militia groups to take on the fighters of the
Islamic State in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and to carry out atrocities against
regime enemies. In other cases where militias oppose the governments of
fragile states, warlords, such as Joseph Kony in Uganda, are able to use
paramilitary violence to hold large swaths of territory under their brutal
personal rule.
Militias have also been significant players in the illicit trafficking of
drugs, oil, timber, gems, and rare antiquities. As a means to pay for recruits
and weapons, militias in diverse countries like Colombia, Nigeria, and
Lebanon have relied on the sale of illicit commodities that cross a number
of borders. These militias have colluded with transnational criminal orga-
nizations that corrupt governmental officials and victimize innocent
people.
Paramilitary violence can also be transnational, complicating efforts to
contend with militias. Individuals from different countries have joined
