The Fortifications of Arkadian City States in the Classical and Hellenistic Periods

438 Pages·2017·26.81 MB·English

by  Matthew P. Maher

The Fortifications of Arkadian
City States in the Classical and
Hellenistic Periods
MATTHEW P. MAHER
OXFORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
OXFORD
VNIV1!RSITY PR1!SS
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
©Matthew Maher 2017
The moral rights of the author have been asserted
First Edition published in 2017
Impression: 1
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in
a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by licence or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics
rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the
address above
You must not circulate this work in any other form
and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer
Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press
198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
Library of Congress Control Number: 2017932071
ISBN 978-0-19-878659-7
Printed and bound by
CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CRO 4YY
Links to third party websites are provided by Oxford in good faith and
for information only. Oxford disclaims any responsibility for the materials
contained in any third party website referenced in this work.
Contents
List of Figures vii
List of Tables xiii
Introduction 1
PART ONE. METHODOLOGY
1. Arkadia, City Walls, and the Polis 19
2. Arkadian Fortification Types and Construction 30
3. Tactical Development of the Constituent Parts of City Walls 44
4. Topographical, Architectural, and Historical Analysis 61
5. The Fortifications of Arkadian City States 98
PART TWO. CATALOGUE
1. Alea, Eastern Arkadia 105
2. Alipheira, Western Arkadia 121
3. Asea, Southern Arkadia 136
4. Dipaia, Central Arkadia 152
5. Gortys, Southern Arkadia 164
6. Halous, Western Arkadia 187
7. Kleitor, Northern Arkadia 199
8. Mantineia, Eastern Arkadia 214
9. Megalopolis, Southern Arkadia 231
10. Nestane, Eastern Arkadia 244
11. Orchomenos, Eastern Arkadia 255
12. Paos, Northern Arkadia 270
13. Pheneos, Northern Arkadia 281
14. Phigaleia, Western Arkadia 295
vi Contents
15. Psophis, Northern Arkadia 312
16. Stymphalos, Northern Arkadia 329
17. Teuthis, Central Arkadia 346
18. Theisoa (Karkalou), Central Arkadia 360
19. Theisoa (Lavda), Western Arkadia 374
Appendix of Other Attested Fortified Arkadian Poleis 395
Bibliography 399
Index 415
List of Figures
1.1. Map of ancient Arkadia 21
1.2. Map of Arkadian poleis from Archaic through Hellenistic Period 24
2.1. Image showing different masonry types 40
3.1. 3D reconstruction of fortification wall with major parts labelled 46
3.2. 3D reconstruction of a frontal gate type from Stymphalos 50
3.3. 3D reconstruction of a gatecourt type gate from Stymphalos 51
3.4. 3D reconstruction of overlap gate type from Stymphalos 52
4.1. Distribution map of fortified Arkadian poleis explored in this study 62
4.2. Distribution map of fortified Arkadian poleis explored in
this study by date of construction 64
4.3. Distribution map of fortified Arkadian poleis explored in
this study by type of construction 66
4.4. Distribution map of fortified Arkadian poleis explored in
this study by type of masonry 73
Cl.I. Alea, topographical map of territory 106
Cl.2. Alea, topographical map of Alea and neighbouring territories 107
Cl.3. Alea, the site (facing north-east) 107
Cl.4. Alea, plan after Meyer (1939a: pl. II) 109
Cl.5. Alea, exterior north-west curtain below citadel {facing east) llO
Cl.6. Alea, exterior acropolis bastion (facing north-east) llO
Cl.7. Alea, postem (exterior) in north-east curtain (facing south-west) Ill
Cl.8. Alea, citadel gate (facing north-east) ll2
Cl.9. Alea, view oflower city from north-east wall (facing south-east) 113
C2.l. Alipheira: Topographical map of area 122
C2.2. Alipheira, topographical map of south-west Arkadia 123
C2.3. Alipheira, plan of the site from Orlandos (1967-8: pl. 2) 125
C2.4. Alipheira, photo of exterior west wall of citadel showing
predominately coursed polygonal masonry (facing north-east) 126
C2.5. Alipheira, plan of citadel from Orlandos (1967-8: 29, fig. 10) 128
C2.6. Alipheira, possible gate/tower in the lower city wall (facing west) 129
C2.7. Alipheira, satellite image and proposed location of lower city walls 129
C3.l. Asea, topographical map of area 137
C3.2. Asea, topographical map of southern Arkadia 138
viii List of Figures
C3.3. Asea, the site (facing east) 139
C3.4. Asea, plan from Forsen et al. (2005: 316, fig. 1) 140
C3.5. Asea, southern spur wall (facing south-east) 141
C3.6. Asea, polygonal masonry of acropolis wall (facing east) 141
C3.7. Asea, photo of North-West Tower (facing west) 142
C3.8. Asea, lower city towers and proposed trace (facing south-west) 143
C3.9. Asea, acropolis gate (facing east) 143
C3.10. Asea, topographic plan showing acropolis circuit and
reconstructed course of lower city walls 146
C4.l. Dipaia, topographical map of Lower Helisson Valley 153
C4.2. Dipaia, topographical map of Helisson Valley and surrounding areas 154
C4.3. Dipaia, hill of Dipaia (facing south-east) 155
C4.4. Dipaia, satellite image with reconstruction of original line of walls 156
C4.5. Dipaia, photo of eastern curtain showing medieval
additions atop original polygonal section (facing west) 157
C4.6. Dipaia, gate on east side of acropolis (facing north-west) 158
C4.7. Dipaia, 'opening' cut into bedrock on edge of acropolis (facing south) 161
CS.I. Gortys, topographical map of area and course of fortifications 165
CS.2. Gortys, topographical map of area 166
CS.3. Gortys, the site (facing south-west) 168
CS.4. Gortys, plan of the site after Lawrence (1979: 354, fig. 82) 168
CS.5. Gortys, western curtain adjoining Gate B (facing south-west) 169
CS.6. Gortys, plans of Towers 5 and 6 from Martin (1947-8, pl. XIV) 171
CS.7. Gortys, plans of the towers of the South Fort from Martin
(1947-8: pl. XVIII) 172
CS.8. Gortys, plans of Gates A, B, and C from Martin (1947-8, pl. XV) 173
CS.9. Gortys, photo of Gate B (facing south) 173
CS.10. Gortys, satellite image with reconstruction of original circuit 179
C6.l. Halous, topographical map showing line of walls and
surrounding area 188
C6.2. Halous, topographical map of north-western Arkadia 189
C6.3. Halous, the site (facing north) 190
C6.4. Halous, plan of the site from Meyer (1939a: pl. 4) 191
C6.5. Halous, polygonal masonry and rubble fill of Tower 5
(facing north-west) 192
C7.l. Kleitor, topographical map of area 200
C7.2. Kleitor, topographical map of area and territory 201
C7.3. Kleitor, the site (facing north-east) 202
List of Figures ix
C7.4. Kleitor, plan of the site after Petritaki (2005: fig. 1) 203
C7.5. Kleitor, trapezoidal masonry of the North-West Gate
(facing north-east) 204
C7.6. Kleitor, semicircular Tower 8 (facing north-west) 205
C7.7. Kleitor, North-West Gate (facing east) 206
C7.8. Kleitor, southern half of West Gate (facing north-east) 206
CS.I. Mantineia, topographical map of area 215
CS.2. Mantineia, topographical map of area and territories of
neighbouring poleis 217
CS.3. Mantineia, the site (facing north-east) 219
CS.4. Mantineia, plan of the site from Fougeres (1898: pl. VIII) 220
CS.5. Mantineia, detail of section of south-east part of circuit (facing west) 221
CS.6. Mantineia, plans of overlap gates 223
CS.7. Mantineia, plans of Gates A and G 223
CS.8. Mantineia, plans of towers with and without posterns 226
C9.l. Megalopolis, topographical map of the basin and city walls 232
C9.2. Megalopolis, topographical map of southern Arkadia 234
C9.3. Megalopolis, topographical map of fortifications showing
excavated areas 236
C9.4. Megalopolis, plans of the excavated sections of 'early'
walls from Loring (1892: 108, fig. 1) 237
C9.5. Megalopolis, plans of the excavated sections of 'later'
walls from Loring (1892: 108, fig. 1) 237
ClO.l. Nestane, topographical map of the site and territory 245
Cl0.2. Nestane, the site (facing north-west) 247
Cl0.3. Nestane, plan of site from Lattermann (1913: abb. 6) 248
Cl0.4. Nestane, north curtain exterior (facing west) 249
Cl0.5. Nestane, the gate (facing south) 250
Cll.l. Orchomenos, topographical map ofKalpaki Hill and
fortification trace 256
Cll.2. Orchomenos, topographical map of site and territory 258
Cll.3. Orchomenos, the site (facing east) 260
Cll.4. Orchomenos, plan of site from Blum and Plassart (1914: pl. III) 261
Cll.5. Orchomenos, exterior front of Tower 7 (facing north-west) 262
Cll.6. Orchomenos, Medieval bastion with earlier Greek foundations
(facing east) 263
Cl2.l. Paos, topographical map of site and territory 271
Cl2.2. Paos, topographical map of site and surrounding territories 272
x List of Figures
Cl2.3. Paos, the site (facing east) 273
Cl2.4. Paos, plan of the site from Papachatzis {1994: 269) 274
Cl2.5. Paos, eastern side of circuit (facing west) 275
Cl3.l. Pheneos, topographical map of site and territory 282
Cl3.2. Pheneos, topographical map of site and surrounding territories 284
Cl3.3. Pheneos, the site {facing south-west) 285
Cl3.4. Pheneos, plan of the site from Kissas et al. (2014: 134, fig. 2) 287
Cl3.5. Pheneos, polygonal masonry of curtain between Towers
1 and 2 (facing south) 288
Cl3.6. Pheneos, rubble core of curtain between Towers 1 and 2
(facing west) 288
Cl3.7. Pheneos, plan of the citadel from Kissas et al. (2014: 152, fig. 17) 290
Cl4.l. Phigaleia, topographical map of site (showing line of walls)
and surrounding area 296
Cl4.2. Phigaleia, topographical map of southwest Arkadia 297
Cl4.3. Phigaleia, the site (facing south) 299
Cl4.4. Phigaleia, topographical plan of site from Cooper and Myers
(1981: 127, fig. 4) 300
Cl4.5. Phigaleia, curtain showing polygonal masonry (facing west) 301
Cl4.6. Phigaleia, schematic drawing of Tower 4 from Leake (1830: i. 496) 302
Cl4.7. Phigaleia, satellite image of north-west cross-wall 304
Cl4.8. Phigaleia, topographical map showing main approaches to the city 306
C15.l. Psophis, topographical map of site and surrounding area 313
Cl5.2. Psophis, the site (facing east) 316
Cl5.3. Psophis, plan of the site from Petropoulos (2005: fig. 1) 317
Cl5.4. Psophis, northern curtain (facing south-east) 317
Cl5.5. Psophis, northern curtain showing interior composition
(facing east) 318
Cl5.6. Psophis, northern fortification wall (facing south) 321
Cl5.7. Psophis, northern curtain and cutting of modern road
(facing south-west) 323
Cl5.8. Psophis, north-east section showing mixture of
trapezoidal and polygonal masonry (facing north-west) 327
Cl6.l. Stymphalos, topographical map of site and territory 330
Cl6.2. Stymphalos, topographical map of site and surrounding territories 331
Cl6.3. Stymphalos, the site from across the lake (facing north east) 334
Cl6.4. Stymphalos, plan of the site from Gourley and Williams (2005: fig. 1) 334
List of Figures xi
Cl6.5. Stymphalos, plan of West Wall Artillery Tower from
Gourley and Williams (2005: fig. 14) 336
Cl6.6. Stymphalos, north-west corner of Acropolis Bastion
(facing south-east) 337
Cl6.7. Stymphalos, plan of Acropolis Bastion from Gourley and
Williams (2005: fig. 13) 338
Cl6.8. Stymphalos, plan of Phlious Gate from Gourley and Williams
(2005: fig. 7) 339
Cl6.9. Stymphalos, plan of Pheneos Gate from Gourley and Williams
(2005: fig. 9) 340
Cl7.l. Teuthis, topographical map of area 347
Cl7.2. Teuthis, topographical map of central Arkadia 348
Cl7.3. Teuthis, modern Dhimitsana (facing south) 350
Cl7.4. Teuthis, topographical map of site and reconstructed line of walls 350
Cl 7.5. Teuthis, plan of modern Dhimitsana showing location
of the preserved sections of the fortifications from Pikoulas
(1986: 104, map 3) 351
Cl7.6. Teuthis, irregular trapezoidal masonry from wall section B4
(facing south) 352
Cl7.7. Teuthis, Tower B4 (facing west) 353
Cl7.8. Teuthis, topographical map of site showing reconstructed line
of the city walls (solid black line), ancient cemeteries (dark grey),
and areas of ancient habitation (light grey) after Pikoulas
(1986: 101, map 1) 356
Cl8.l. Theisoa (Karkalou), topographical map of site showing
approximate line of fortifications 361
Cl8.2. Theisoa (Karkalou), topographical map of area 362
Cl8.3. Theisoa (Karkalou), the site (facing south) 363
Cl8.4. Theisoa (Karkalou), satellite image showing reconstructed
line of fortifications 364
Cl8.5. Theisoa (Karkalou), North-East Tower showing trapezoidal
masonry (facing north-west) 365
Cl8.6. Theisoa (Karkalou), plans of South Tower, gate, and
North-East Tower on acropolis from Hiller von
Gaertringen and Lattermann (1911: 8, abb. 13) 366
Cl8.7. Theisoa (Karkalou), South Tower (facing north-west) 366
Cl8.8. Theisoa (Karkalou), showing approximate limits of stairs
leading up to gate (facing west) 367
Cl9.l. Theisoa (Lavda), topographical map of area 375
xii List of Figures
Cl9.2. Theisoa (Lavda), topographical plan ofLavda hill from Feije
(1994: 53, fig. 3) 376
Cl9.3. Theisoa (Lavda), topographical map of site and surrounding
territories 377
CI9.4. Theisoa (Lavda), Lavda hill (facing west) 378
Cl9.5. Theisoa (Lavda), plan of site after Feije (1994: 58, fig. 5) 379
Cl9.6. Theisoa (Lavda), west curtain wall showing coursed
polygonal masonry (facing south-east) 380
Cl9.7. Theisoa (Lavda), Tower 9 (facing north-west) 381
Cl9.8. Theisoa (Lavda), semicircular Tower 8 (facing west) 381
Cl9.9. Theisoa (Lavda), West Gate and north-west side of Tower I
(facing south-west) 382
Cl9.10. Theisoa (Lavda), south-west citadel wall (facing south-east);
note: the knoll (right) is the highest point on the hill on
which stood the south-west citadel tower 383
Cl9.ll. Theisoa (Lavda), citadel gateway (marked with arrow) and
corner of south-east citadel tower (facing north) 384
While every effort has been made to secure permission to reproduce the illustrations,
we may have failed in a few cases to trace the copyright holders. If contacted, the
publisher will be pleased to rectify any omissions at the earliest opportunity.