The feasibility of sand-abstraction as a viable method of ground water abstraction

594 Pages·2017·45.42 MB·English

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The feasibility of
sand-abstraction as a viable
method of ground water
abstraction
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• A Doctoral Thesis. Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements
for the award of Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University.
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Publisher: (cid:13)c Stephen W. Hussey
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THE FEASIBILITY OF
SAND-ABSTRACTION AS
A VIABLE METHOD OF
GROUNDW ATER
ABSTRACTION
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
There are many people whom I would like to acknowledge for providing me with considerable
. assistance and support in the undertaking of this study of sand rivers and sand-abstraction that has
culminated in this thesis. Particular thanks must go to my supervisors, Bob Elson and Mike
. Smith, for their suggestions and encouragement.
This thesis could not have been completed without the assistance and support of my family: my
wife, Inez, who has encouraged me throughout and who has assisted with the graphics; my
daughter, Juliet, who has spent long hours proof reading and who now probably knows more
about sand-abstraction than any other young lady; my son, Joseph, who has contributed the
insight of an engineer, provided many of the drawings and whose patience has been tried time and
again sorting out software problems; my son-in-law, Colin Campbell, who has reviewed the
spreadsheet work and my grandson, Alasdair, who has provided light relief and who has
obligingly taken a daily nap, thus freeing his mother to complete the proofreading! Also my
considerable thanks go to my 'young father', Denys Wingfield, for all his interest, support and
encouragement.
The research work would also not have been possible without the hard work and enthusiasm of all
my friends and colleagues at Dabane Trust. In particular I would like to thank Florence Ndlovu,
who provided admirable co-ordination of the field research workers and their work and for her
involvement in practical experiments; Melusi Mafu, who fabricated much of the equipment used
at the research sites and subsequently for his work on the development of hand pumps and well
points; Peace Ncube and Donald Ncube, who provided considerable assistance during the setting
up ofthe field research sites; Douglas Nleya and Thelma Ntini for their assistance with the
sociological aspects of the study. Finally this list would not be complete without acknowledging
the initial work undertaken by Mandlenkosi Tshabalala, who sadly died early on in the
programme.
The field workers; Michael Sibanda and Stephen Mkandla at the Dongamuzi site; Letshane
Nkomo and MaNcube at Huwana; Lesegho Nyathi and Pretty Moyo at Tshelanyemba and at
Wenlock MaSibanda and MaSiziba each assisted in the setting up of the sites, collected data on a
very regularly basis and maintained a link with their respective communities thus providing
considerable assistance and input into the research programme.
My considerable thanks also go to all those who have in one way or another contributed to and
enabled the research and study programme that has so far culminated in this thesis; The
J.A. Clark Charitable Trust, Tudor Trust, Action for World Solidarity, Quaker Peace & Social
Witness and the many individuals who made personal contributions to the programme. In
particular, for financing the actual thesis, my thanks go to the Canon Collins Educational Trust
for Southern Africa.
My thanks also to a group of people who have been willing to share their ideas and experience,
amongst many; Martin Mansell, Richard Cansdale, Richard Knottenbelt, Richard Owen, Tim
Broderick, Stuart Helm and Michelle Clanahan.
And fmally acknowledgement must go to all the rural women of Matabeleland, who use
sand-abstraction so wisely and whose lives, I hope, may be made a little easier by this
work.
Acknowledgements Acknowledgements
THE FEASIBILITY OF SAND-ABSTRACTION AS A VIABLE
METHOD OF GROUNDWATERABSTRACTION
ABSTRACT
Many rural communities in arid areas of the world make extensive use of perennial water
supplies retained within the sediment of a river channel. This naturally filtered water
provides for their basic subsistence. A general term applied to the abstraction of water
from river sediment is sand-abstraction.
Ephemeral and seasonal rivers primarily drain the dryland regions of the world. These
arid regions are typically subject to extensive environmental degradation with a
consequent high degree of surface erosion. As a result, many of the rivers have become
sand rivers, filled with copious amounts of sediment. Most arid areas are subject to
occasional rainstorms and flash floods that immediately drain to waterways and saturate
the sediment within the river channel. In larger rivers a perennial supply of water is
maintained within the sediment.
Despite a perceived potential for this water resource there has been little development of
any small-scale technology that is suitable for use at a basic rural level. A research and
study programme was instigated to assess fully, the potential of such a resource. Field
research was undertaken to characterise typical sand rivers and to assess the water storage
and water loss and retention factors within river sediment. A check list for identifying
possible sand-abstraction sites was devised. In the process of this study the advantages of
storing water in sand was fully appreciated and attention given to the development of
initially less suitable sites in serious water deficit areas. Systems for efficient abstraction
of water were reviewed and designs formulated for the fabrication of equipment to
mechanically draw water from river sediment. A series of well-screens, well-points,
infiltration galleries and caissons have been designed and initial tests have been
conducted under field conditions. Simple technology handpumps that it was considered
could be operated, maintained and repaired by rural communities using locally available
materials have been developed in conjunction with the abstraction equipment.
In consultation with rural people an analysis was made of the technical and sociological
requirements that are considered essential for the sustainability of technology suitable for
use by disadvantaged rural communities. Both practical and literature research has
indicated the latent possibility of this technology. Interaction has been maintained with
four communities throughout the research and development period and contributions and
indications received are that there is a need to develop such a water source with an
upgraded technology.
The conclusion from the work undertaken is that development of the technology is
worthwhile and that greater efforts should be made to promote it at a small-scale, rural
level. In addition the potential to provide clean water in arid regions from such a low
technology application should be drawn to the attention of professional water engineers.
Keywords:
sand-abstraction, sand rivers, ephemeral rivers, well-points, handpumps, arid areas,
community development
Abstract 2 Abstract
CONTENTS
Chapter 1: Overview of Study and Research 8
1. The Shortage of Water 8
1.1 A Traditional Belief 8
1.2 Background and Outline 8
1.2.2 Water Sources 8
1.2.2 Water Scarcity 9
1.2.3 Viability and Sustainability of Water Supplies 10
1.3 Overview of Study and Research 12
1.3.1 The Problem 12
1.3.2 Water Deficit 14
1.3.3 Sources and Availability of Water 16
1.4 The Concept - Possibilities and Potential 19
1.4.1 Background to the Research 19
1.4.2 The Development of Alternate Groundwater Resources 20
1.5 The Availability of Water in Ephemeral Rivers 20
1.5.1 The Extent of Ephemeral Rivers 20
1.5.2 Characterisation of Ephemeral Rivers 22
1.6 Feasibility of Abstracting Water from Ephemeral Rivers 23
1.7 Water Quality 25
1.8 Purpose of Research 26
1.8.1 Overview of Activities 27
1.9 Hypothesis, Aims and Objectives 27
1.10 Methodology - Approach and Scope of Thesis 28
1.10.1 Logical Framework Methodology 30
1.11 Criteria for Research and Study 31
1.12 Review of Literature 32
1.13 Surrunary 32
Chapter 2: Context & Perspective 34
2. Explanation of Sand-abstraction 34
2.1 Terminology 34
2.2 The Water Resource of Sand Rivers 35
2.2.1 The Abstraction of Water from Sand 38
2.2.2 Typical Uses of Water from Sand-abstraction 38
2.3 Advantages of Sand-abstraction Systems 42
2.4 Disadvantages of Sand-abstraction Systems 44
2.5 Methods of Abstracting Water from Sand 46
2.6 Historical and Traditional Use 48
2.61 Sources of Water 48
2.6.2 Land use and Water 50
2.7 Related Systems and Alternate Sources 52
2.7.1 Related Systems 52
2.7.2 Alternative Sources of Water from Sand 52
2.8 Geographical Context 58
2.8.\ Regions and Countries of Use 59
2.9 Hydrogeological Context 61
2.9.\ Properties of Sediment 62
2.10 Technical Context 69
Contents 3 Contents
2.10.1 Traditional Technology 69
2.10.2 Conunercial Technology and Equipment 70
2.10.3 Associated Abstraction Technology 74
2.1 0.4 Installation and Abstraction 75
2.11 Previous Studies and Reviews 80
2.11.1 River Morphology 80
2.11.2 Water Abstraction from River Alluvium 81
2.12 The Need for a Study of Sand-abstraction 82
2.13 Review of Literature 84
2.14 Summary 87
Chapter 3: Research Methodology 89
3. Justification for Sand-abstraction, Research Undertaken and Equipment Used 89
3.1 Research Outline 90
3.2 Research Methodology 93
3.2.1 Overview of Field Work 98
3.2.2 Selection Criteria 98
3.3 Research Undertaken 104
3.3.1 Field Research Sites 104
3.4 Off-site and Laboratory Research 111
3.4.1 Off-site Research 111
3.4.2 Laboratory Research 113
3.5 Development of Equipment 114
3.5.1 Field Research and Off-site Equipment 114
3.6 Review of Literature 124
3.7 Summary 126
Chapter 4: Characterisation Outline
4. Riverbed Analysis and Categorisation 129
4.1 Zimbabwean Context 133
4.2 Characterisation, Flow and Storage in a Sand River 136
4.2.1 River Basins and River Morphology 136
4.2.2 Characteristics of Ephemeral and Perennial Rivers 140
4.2.3 Erosion and Sedimentation 144
4.2.4 Water Balance 161
4.2.4 Water Quality 169
4.2.5 Water Quality 169
4.3 Review of Literature 172
Chapter 5:. Research Activities
5. Presentation of Data 174
5.1 Geology of Research Areas 174
5.2 Climate, Vegetation and Land Use of Research Areas 179
5.3 Criteria for Abstraction Sites 184
5.3.1 Site Selection 184
5.4 Field and Off-site Research 187
5.4.1 Field Research Undertaken 187
5.4.2 Off-site Research Undertaken 188
5.5 Data Presentation 189
5.5.1 Field Derived Data 189
5.6 Assessment of Data 200
5.6.1 Description and Classification of Sediment 200
Contents 4 Contents