The Exoplanet Handbook

974 Pages·2018·46.531 MB·English

by  Michael Perryman

TheExoplanetHandbook
SecondEdition
Withthediscoveryofplanetsbeyondoursolarsystem25yearsago,exoplanetresearch
hasexpandeddramatically,withnewstate-of-the-artground-basedandspace-basedmis-
sionsdedicatedtotheirdiscoveryandcharacterisation.Withmorethan3500exoplanets
nowknown,thecomplexityofthediscoverytechniques,observations,andphysicalchar-
acterisation has grown substantially. This handbook ties all these avenues of research
togetheracrossabroadrangeofexoplanetscience.Planetformation,exoplanetinteri-
orsandatmospheres,andhabitabilityarediscussed,providingin-depthcoverageofour
knowledgetodate.Comprehensivelyupdatedfromthefirstedition,thisbookincludes
instrumental and observational developments, in-depth treatment of the new Kepler
mission results and hot Jupiter atmospheric studies, and major updates on models of
exoplanetformation.Withextensivereferencestotheresearchliteratureandappendices
coveringallindividualexoplanetdiscoveries,itisavaluablereferencetothisexcitingfield
forbothincomingandestablishedresearchers.
During a 30-year career with the European Space Agency (ESA), Michael Perryman
wasthescientificleaderoftheHipparcosastrometrymission,1981–97,alsoservingas
projectmanagerforitsoperationalphase,1989–93.WithLennartLindegren,hewasthe
co-originatoroftheGaiaastrometrymission,aprojectexpectedtomakeimportantcon-
tributionstoexoplanetscienceinthecomingyears.HewasESA’sprojectscientistforGaia
fromitsearliestconceptsin1995untiltheCriticalDesignReviewin2008,establishing
thepayloadconcept,technicalfeasibility,operationalanddataanalysisprinciples,andits
organisationalstructure,andcoordinatingitsscientificcase.HewasProfessorofAstron-
omyatLeidenUniversitybetween1993and2009,andBohdanPaczyn´skiVisitingProfessor
atPrincetonUniversityin2013.
PraisefortheFirstEdition
‘TheExoplanetHandbookbyMichaelPerrymanisanexhaustivereferenceforthetechniques,factsandtheoryofexoplanet
science.Anexcellentandobjectiveresourcefornoviceandexpertalike,thiscompendiumisdestinedforthelibrariesofall
seriousstudentsoftheart.’AdamBurrows,PrincetonUniversity
‘Perryman’sbookistrulyamajorachievement:itisanastonishinglycompleteoverviewofeverythingweknowabout
exoplanets.TheExoplanetHandbookwillserveastheseminalreferenceinthisfieldformanyyears.Iwould(andwill)
stronglyencourageanygraduatestudentsinterestedindoingseriousresearchinexoplanetstobuyacopyofthisbook.’
B.ScottGaudi,TheOhioStateUniversity
‘MichaelPerryman’snewbookprovidesnotonlyathoroughdiscussionofwhatwehavelearntaboutextrasolarplanets
sincethefirstdiscoveriesover15yearsago,butalsoaclearandcomprehensivereviewofthewiderangeofobservational
andtheoreticaltechniquesthathavebeenemployedtofindandcharacterisethem.Thisvolumeisamust-haveforserious
researchersinthefield,andwillbeaninvaluablereferenceformanyyearstocome.’I.NeillReid,SpaceTelescopeScience
Institute
‘...moretechnicallydetailedandcomprehensivethanmanyoftherivaltexts....itisanidealcompanionforaPh.D.
studentinthefield,aswellasanexcellentreferencefortheexperiencedresearcher...thisisalsoanexcellent,detailed
textbooksuitableforaspecialistundergraduateorpostgraduatelecturecourse.’TheObservatory
‘If I were allowed access to only one book on the subject of extra-solar planets, Michael Perryman’s The Exoplanet
Handbookisacontenderthatwouldbeveryhardtobeat.Thebookdocumentsthewhirlwinddevelopmentofthisnewly-
emergentandenergeticnewfieldofscience...Itisalsoacompendiumofessentialphysicalconcepts,usefulformulae
and computational strategies for analysis of the various types of astronomical data used to discover and characterise
exoplanets.’AndrewCollierCameron,UniversityofStAndrews
‘Thisremarkablecompilationbringstogetherobservationsandtheoreticalexplorationsofarapidlygrowingastronomical
field.Literallyeverypossibleobservationalmethodisexplainedandrecentresultsgiven...Whilethenumberofknown
exoplanetschangesweekly,themethodsthroughwhichwediscoverandcharacterisethesedonot.Highlyrecommended.’
GeorgeF.Benedict,UniversityofTexas,Austin
‘TheExoplanetHandbookprovidesaveryvaluableintegrationofallaspectsofthefascinatingandinterdisciplinaryworld
ofexoplanetscience.Itcombinesinacoherentcontextthepresentationoftheobservationaltechniques,coveringrecent
highlightsandfutureprospects,withthedescriptionofthevastrangeofintertwiningphenomenaandprocessesthat
shapethepathsofplanetformation,evolutionandstructure...TheHandbookisaninvaluableresourceforprofessional
planetaryscientistsandacademicteachers,forbothpractisingastronomersandmotivatedamateurs,andforadvanced
undergraduateandgraduatestudents.’VittorioVanzani,PaduaUniversity
‘ThisHandbookisatrueencyclopedicreferenceonexoplanets.Perryman’snewbookisacomprehensivereviewonmajor
programsandresultsobtainedinthelastdecadeinthisexcitingnewdomainofastrophysicsandassuchitisapriceless
resourceforexperts.Thedetaileddescriptionsofthefoundationsofthemainobservationstechniquesandkeytheoretical
aspectsmakeitaperfectbookforanystudentwishingtohaveacomprehensiveintroductiontoexoplanetresearch.This
volumeislikelytobecomeanimportantreferenceinthefield.’DidierQueloz,GenevaObservatory
‘TheExoplanetHandbookbyMichaelPerrymanisimpressive;thecontentisofhighlevelandveryaccurate.Hehassuc-
ceededinprovidinganexhaustiveandup-to-datereviewofthismatureandrichfield.TheHandbookwillsurelyhelpPh.D.
studentsandprofessionalastronomerswhowanttolearnaboutthisfield.Itwillevenbeusefultoexpertswhowantto
checkdetailsonsomespecificaspects,eitheraboutexoplanetsthemselves,detectionmethods,orinstrumentation.’Jean
Schneider,CNRS/LUTH,ParisObservatory
‘...MichaelPerryman...haswrittenanexcellent,startlinglycompletesnapshotofthecurrentstateofknowledgeregard-
ingextrasolarplanets...Likeanygoodencyclopedia,TheExoplanetHandbookhasasitsmajorstrengthitsreferencelist,
whichcitesmorethan4000papers.Thelistprovidesanear-completesnapshotofalltheresearchthathastakenplacein
thefieldinthepasttwodecades.Furthermore,thereferencesaredeftlyintegratedintothetext,whichmakesthisvolume
anexcellentpointofdepartureforanyresearcherseekingtochartanewcourseofexoplanetaryinvestigation.’Gregory
Laughlin,PhysicsToday
The Exoplanet Handbook
SecondEdition
MichaelPerryman
Max–Planck–InstitutfürAstronomie,Heidelberg
ZentrumfürAstronomiederUniversitätHeidelberg
UniversityCollegeDublin
UniversityPrintingHouse,CambridgeCB28BS,UnitedKingdom
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CambridgeUniversityPressispartoftheUniversityofCambridge.
ItfurtherstheUniversity’smissionbydisseminatingknowledgeinthepursuitof
education,learning,andresearchatthehighestinternationallevelsofexcellence.
www.cambridge.org
Informationonthistitle:www.cambridge.org/9781108419772
DOI:10.1017/9781108304160
(cid:2)c MichaelPerryman2011,2014,2018
Thispublicationisincopyright.Subjecttostatutoryexception
andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
noreproductionofanypartmaytakeplacewithoutthewritten
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Firstpublished2011
Firstpaperbackedition2014
Secondedition2018
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Names:Perryman,M.A.C.,author.
Title:Theexoplanethandbook/MichaelPerryman(UniversityCollegeDublin).
Description:Secondedition.|Cambridge;NewYork:CambridgeUniversity
Press,[2018]|Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.
Identifiers:LCCN2018028046|ISBN9781108419772(Hardback:alk.paper)
Subjects:LCSH:Extrasolarplanets.
Classification:LCCQB820.P472018|DDC523.2/4–dc23
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Contents
PrefacetotheSecondEdition xix
1 Introduction 1
1.1 Thechallenge 1
1.2 Discoverystatus 1
1.3 Outlineofthetreatment 2
1.3.1 Observationaltechniques 2
1.3.2 Hoststarpropertiesandbrowndwarfs 4
1.3.3 Theoreticalconsiderations 4
1.3.4 Solarsystem 5
1.3.5 Appendixes 5
1.3.6 Hyperlinksandonlineresources 5
1.4 Astronomicaltermsandunits 5
1.5 Definitionofaplanet 8
1.6 Planetcategories 9
1.6.1 Classificationbysizeormass 9
1.6.2 Giantplanets 9
1.6.3 Earthsandsuper-Earths 13
1.7 On-linereferencecompilations 14
1.8 Futuredevelopments 15
2 Radialvelocities 17
2.1 Orbitsandorbitfitting 17
2.1.1 Descriptionoforbits 17
2.1.2 Orbitsfromradialvelocities 20
2.1.3 Singleplanetfitting 21
2.1.4 Multipleplanetfitting 22
2.1.5 Bayesianmethods 23
2.1.6 Algorithmicimplementation 24
2.1.7 Detectabilityandselectioneffects 26
2.1.8 Scheduling 26
2.2 Measurementprinciples 28
2.2.1 Dopplershifts 28
2.2.2 Spectralresolution 28
2.2.3 Cross-correlationspectroscopy 28
2.2.4 Determinationofbarycentricvelocities 29
2.3 Wavelengthcalibration 31
2.3.1 Telluriclines 31
2.3.2 Gascells 31
2.3.3 Emissionlamps 32
vi
2.3.4 Infraredcalibration 32
2.3.5 Laserfrequencycombs 32
2.3.6 Fabry–Pérotétalons 33
2.3.7 Radialvelocitystandards 33
2.3.8 Fibercoupling 34
2.4 Accuracylimitsanderrorsources 34
2.4.1 Photonnoise 35
2.4.2 Detectionversussignal-to-noise 35
2.4.3 Exposuremetering 35
2.4.4 Instrumenterrors 35
2.4.5 Stellaractivity 36
2.4.6 Excludingothersourcesofperiodicity 38
2.4.7 Bisectoranalysis 39
2.5 Higher-orderradialvelocityeffects 40
2.5.1 Gravitationalredshiftvariations 40
2.5.2 Zeemaneffect 40
2.5.3 Planet-inducedtides 41
2.5.4 Planetradialvelocitysignals 41
2.5.5 Determinationofinclination 44
2.6 Radialvelocityinstruments 45
2.6.1 Overview 45
2.6.2 State-of-the-artinéchellespectroscopy 45
2.6.3 Otheropticalspectrographs 47
2.6.4 Infraredspectrographs 47
2.6.5 Optical–infraredspectrographs 48
2.6.6 Futureinstrumentplans 49
2.6.7 Externallydispersedinterferometry 49
2.6.8 Absoluteaccelerometry 50
2.7 Introductiontotheradialvelocityresults 50
2.7.1 Thefirstradialvelocityexoplanets 50
2.7.2 Exampleradialvelocitycurves 51
2.7.3 Presentradialvelocitycensus 51
2.7.4 Reviews 53
2.7.5 On-linecompilations 53
2.8 Surveysaccordingtostellartype 53
2.8.1 Mainsequencestars 53
2.8.2 Early-typedwarfs 54
2.8.3 Evolvedstars:subgiantsandgiants 56
2.8.4 Mdwarfs 57
2.9 Surveysaccordingtoothercriteria 59
2.9.1 Nearbystarsandvolume-limitedsamples 59
2.9.2 Specificnearbystars 59
2.9.3 SolartwinsandJupiteranalogues 59
2.9.4 Effectsofmetallicity 60
2.9.5 Openclusters 61
2.9.6 Youngstarsandassociations 61
2.9.7 Follow-upoftransitcandidates 61
2.10 Massesandorbits 62
2.10.1 Massdistribution 62
2.10.2 Massofhoststar 62
2.10.3 Perioddistribution 62
2.10.4 Eccentricities 63
2.10.5 Browndwarfdesert 64
2.11 Resultsaccordingtoplanettype 66
2.11.1 Low-massplanets 66
vii
2.11.2 Super-EarthsandNeptunes 66
2.11.3 High-massplanets 66
2.11.4 HotJupiters 67
2.12 Multi-planetsystems 67
2.12.1 Generalconsiderations 67
2.12.2 Architecturesandclassification 68
2.12.3 Systemswiththreeormoregiantplanets 68
2.12.4 Systemsinmeanmotionresonance 71
2.12.5 Interactingtwo-planetsystems 77
2.12.6 Non-interactingtwo-planetsystems 77
2.12.7 Super-Earthsystems 77
2.13 Binaryandmultiplestars 78
2.13.1 Presentinventory 79
2.13.2 Specificexamples 80
3 Astrometry 81
3.1 Introduction 81
3.2 Astrometricaccuracyfromground 82
3.2.1 Singleaperture 82
3.2.2 Interferometry 83
3.3 Microarcsecastrometry 84
3.3.1 Lightdeflection 84
3.3.2 Aberration 85
3.3.3 Sourcemotion 85
3.3.4 Astrophysicallimits 85
3.4 Modelingplanetarysystems 86
3.4.1 Propermotionandparallax 86
3.4.2 Multipleplanets 86
3.4.3 Keplerianelements 87
3.4.4 Massandorbitinclination 88
3.4.5 Planet–planetinteractions 88
3.4.6 Wavelengthdependence 89
3.4.7 Coordinatetransformations 89
3.5 Astrometricsearchesfromtheground 90
3.5.1 Singlemirror 90
3.5.2 Discoveriesandcandidates 91
3.5.3 Opticalinterferometry 91
3.6 Astrometryfromspace:principles 91
3.7 Astrometryfromspace:HST 92
3.8 Astrometryfromspace:Hipparcos 93
3.9 Astrometryfromspace:Gaia 95
3.9.1 Principles 95
3.9.2 Expectedastrometricplanetyield 96
3.9.3 TransitingplanetsfromGaiaastrometry 99
3.9.4 Datareleases 99
3.10 Otherspaceastrometryprojects 99
3.10.1 Proposedspacemissions 99
3.10.2 Projectsnolongerunderconsideration 100
3.11 Radioandsub-mmastrometry 100
3.11.1 Astrometryatradiowavelengths 100
3.11.2 Astrometryatmm/sub-mmwavelengths 101
4 Timing 103
4.1 Candidatesandtimescales 103
4.2 Pulsars 103
viii
4.2.1 Characteristics 103
4.2.2 Individualpulsars 105
4.2.3 Otherconsiderations 109
4.3 Pulsatingstars 110
4.3.1 Context 110
4.3.2 Whitedwarfs 110
4.3.3 Rapidlypulsatingsubdwarfs 111
4.4 Eclipsingbinaries 112
4.4.1 Context 112
4.4.2 Candidatesystems 113
4.4.3 Complicatingfactors 113
4.4.4 Individualsystems 114
4.5 Transittimingvariations 117
5 Microlensing 119
5.1 Introduction 119
5.2 Principles 120
5.2.1 Lightbending 120
5.2.2 Magnification 122
5.2.3 Opticaldepthandeventrate 123
5.3 Lightcurves 124
5.3.1 Singlelenscharacterisation 124
5.3.2 Binarylenscharacterisation 124
5.3.3 Multiplepointmasslenses 125
5.3.4 Criticalcurves,caustics,andcusps 126
5.3.5 Binarylenscaustics 126
5.3.6 Magnificationmaps 127
5.3.7 High-magnificationevents 128
5.3.8 Short-durationevents 129
5.3.9 Repeatingevents 129
5.3.10 Binarylens,binarysource 129
5.3.11 Free-floatingobjects 129
5.3.12 Planetsorbitingabinarysystem 130
5.4 Lightcurvemodeling 130
5.4.1 Rayshooting 130
5.4.2 Modelfitting 131
5.4.3 Lens–sourcetransversemotion 131
5.5 Higher-ordereffects 131
5.5.1 Blending 131
5.5.2 Finitesourcesize 131
5.5.3 Limbdarkeningofthesource 132
5.5.4 Orbitalmotion 132
5.5.5 Parallaxandlensmass 133
5.5.6 High-resolutionimaging 135
5.6 Potentiallyobservableeffects 135
5.6.1 Structureinthelens 135
5.6.2 Structureinthesource 136
5.6.3 Physicaleffects 136
5.6.4 Transitingplanets 137
5.6.5 Specifictargets 137
5.7 Solarsystemlensing 137
5.8 Astrometricmicrolensing 138
5.9 Observations 139
5.9.1 Ground-based:firstgeneration(pre–2010) 139
5.9.2 Ground-based:secondgeneration(post–2010) 141