Table Of ContentThe European Union’s Fight Against Corruption
The fi ght against corruption emerged as one of the most signifi cant
issues during the 2004 enlargement and gained even more
importance with the accession of Romania and Bulgaria in 2007. In
order to prepare candidate countries for membership, the EU found
it necessary to create new institutions and mechanisms to address
corruption. Patrycja Szarek-Mason traces the development of the
EU anti-corruption framework, showing how recent enlargements
transformed EU policy and highlighting inequities between the
treatment of candidate countries and existing Member States. The
experience gained during the 2004 enlargement led to a more
robust anti-corruption stance during the accession of Bulgaria
and Romania and will have implications for future enlargements
of the EU. However, the framework can still be strengthened to
address corruption adequately and promote higher standards
among Member States, especially through greater use of ‘soft
law’ in the form of mutually agreed, non-legally binding policy
recommendations.
P ATRYCJA SZAREK-MASON received her law degrees from Adam
Mickiewicz University in Poznan and the University of Ghent. She
taught various European Union law courses at the University of
Edinburgh, where she also obtained her Ph.D. in 2008. Since 2003,
her research has focused on the requirements of EU membership in
the area of anti-corruption policy.
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CAMBRIDGE STUDIES IN EUROPEAN LAW AND POLICY
This series aims to produce original works which contain a critical analysis
of the state of the law in particular areas of European Law and set out
different perspectives and suggestions for its future development. It also
aims to encourage a range of work on law, legal institutions and legal
phenomena in Europe, including ‘law in context’ approaches. The titles in
the series will be of interest to academics; policymakers; policy formers who
are interested in European legal, commercial, and political affairs; practising
lawyers including the judiciary; and advanced law students and researchers.
Joint Editors
Professor Dr L aurence Gormley
University of Groningen, The Netherlands
Professor J o Shaw
University of Edinburgh
Editorial advisory board
Professor R ichard Bellamy , University of Reading;
Professor C atherine Barnard , University of Cambridge;
Professor M arise Cremona , European University Institute, Florence;
Professor A lan Dashwood , University of Cambridge;
Professor Dr J acqueline Dutheil de la Rochère , Université de Paris II, Director
of the Centre de Droit Européen, France;
Dr Andrew Drzemczewski , Council of Europe, Strasbourg, France;
Sir David Edward KCMG, QC, former Judge, Court of Justice of the European
Communities, Luxembourg;
Professor Dr W alter Baron van Gerven , Emeritus Professor, Leuven &
Maastricht and former Advocate General, Court of Justice of the European
Communities;
Professor D aniel Halberstam , University of Michigan, USA;
Professor Dr I ngolf Pernice , Director of the Walter Hallstein Institut,
Humboldt Universität, Berlin;
Michel Petite , Former Director General of the Legal Service, Commission of
the European Communities, Bruxelles;
Professor Dr S inisa Rodin , University of Zagreb;
Professor N eil Walker , University of Aberdeen and EUI, Fiesole.
For a full list of titles published in the series, please see the end of the book.
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The European Union’s Fight
Against Corruption
The evolving policy towards Member States
and candidate countries
Patrycja Szarek - Mason
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© Patrycja Szarek-Mason 2010
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no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
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First published 2010
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
Mason, Patrycja Szarek.
The European Union’s fi ght against corruption : the evolving policy
towards member states and candidate countries / Patrycja Szarek Mason.
p. cm. – (Cambridge studies in european law and policy)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-521-11357-1 (hardback)
1. Political corruption–European Union countries. 2. Fraud–European
Union countries. 3. European Union. I. Title. II. Series.
KJE8643.M37 2010
345.24'02323–dc22 2009053422
ISBN 978-0-521-11357-1 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to in
this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such websites
is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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Contents
Table of cases page viii
Acronyms and abbreviations ix
List of tables and fi gures x
Introduction 1
1. Corruption: concept, importance and
international response 5
1.1. The EU’s defi nition of corruption 6
1.2. Case study: corruption in the Central
and Eastern European countries 11
1.2.1. The prevalence of corruption in the
post-communist countries 11
1.2.2. Causes of corruption 16
1.2.3. The importance of combating corruption 1 9
1.3. Corruption as an international policy problem 21
1.3.1. The context 21
1.3.2. Evolution of international cooperation 23
1.3.3. The importance of international cooperation 33
1.3.4. Monitoring mechanisms 34
1.4. Conclusion 40
2. The scope of EU legal powers and development
of the policy in the area of anti-corruption 43
2.1. The legal bases in the area of anti-corruption
policy 44
2.1.1. The EC Treaty 47
2.1.2. The EU Treaty 56
2.2. The development of the EU policy against
corruption 69
v
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vi CONTENTS
2.2.1. Phase One: the fi ght against corruption in
the context of the protection of the
Communities’ fi nancial interests 73
2.2.2. Phase Two: beyond the protection of the
Communities’ fi nancial interests 82
2.2.3. Phase Three: a comprehensive policy
against corruption 83
2.3. Conclusion 87
3. The EU strategy against corruption within
the Member States 89
3.1. EU legislative and institutional framework 92
3.1.1. The fi rst pillar measures 92
3.1.2. The third pillar measures 98
3.1.3. The anti-corruption dimension of EU
anti-money laundering legislation 116
3.1.4. Monitoring mechanisms 122
3.2. Cooperation with international organisations 130
3.3. Conclusion 132
4. Conditionality in the EU accession process 135
4.1. The general conditions of accession 1 38
4.2. The requirements of the 2004 enlargement 1 39
4.2.1. The Copenhagen criteria 140
4.2.2. Combating corruption as a membership
condition 143
4.3. The pre-accession strategy and its instruments 145
4.3.1. The Europe Agreements 146
4.3.2. The 1997 Opinions 148
4.3.3. The Regular Reports 150
4.3.4. Accession Partnerships and the National
Programmes for the Adoption of the A cquis 150
4.4. Impact of conditionality on domestic policies
of the Central Eastern European countries 152
4.5. Conclusion 155
5. The EU’s evaluation of corruption in the Central
and Eastern European candidate countries 157
5.1. The importance of evaluation 1 58
5.2. The pre-accession institutions and mechanisms
of evaluation 160
5.2.1. Evaluation within the Commission 1 61
5.2.2. Evaluation within the Council 168
5.3. Conclusion: assessment 178
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CONTENTS vii
6. The EU anti-corruption strategy towards the
Central and Eastern European candidate
countries: achievement or missed opportunity? 182
6.1. The EU anti-corruption standards for the
candidate countries 185
6.1.1. Formal requirements of the a cquis 186
6.1.2. Anti-corruption standards beyond the
acquis 188
6.2. Technical and fi nancial assistance as a policy
transfer instrument 199
6.2.1. The EU programmes 199
6.2.2. Joint programmes with the OECD and
the Council of Europe 204
6.3. The impact of EU accession on the
anti-corruption policies 206
6.3.1. Case study: Poland 208
6.4. Conclusion 214
7. The impact of 2004 enlargement on the EU
anti-corruption policy 218
7.1. The reinforcement of the EU strategy towards
Bulgaria and Romania 2 21
7.2. The extension of anti-corruption policy to
external relations of the EU 2 38
7.2.1. Potential candidate countries 239
7.2.2. European Neighbourhood Policy 242
7.3. The anti-corruption policy after the
2004 enlargement 245
7.4. Possible developments 250
7.4.1. Arguments for a closer cooperation with
the Council of Europe 253
7.4.2. The case for a separate EU
anti-corruption framework 257
7.5. Conclusion 262
8. Conclusion 265
Appendix 1 271
Appendix 2 273
Bibliography 2 75
Index 296
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Table of Cases
Case 68/88 C ommission v. Greece [1989] ECR 2965 p age 74
Cases C-6 and 9/90 F rancovich and Bonifaci v. Italy [1991]
ECR I-5357 123
Cases C-46/93 and C-48/93 B rasserie du Pêcheur SA v.
Germany; R. v. Secretary of State for Transport,
ex parte Factortame Ltd and others [1996] ECR I-1029 123
Case C-376/98 G ermany v. European Parliament and Council
[2000] ECR I-8419 54, 55
Case C-105/03 P upino [2005] ECR I-5285 60
Case C-176/03 C ommission v. Council [2005] ECR I-7879 50, 51, 52
Case C-317/04 E uropean Parliament v. Council
[2005] ECR I-2457 55
Case C-354/04 G estoras Pro Amnistía and others v. Council
[2007] ECR I-01657 65, 66
Case C-440/05 C ommission v. Council [2007] (ECJ
23 October 2007) 51, 52
viii
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Acronyms and Abbreviations
CEE countries Central and Eastern European countries
CEWP Collective Evaluation Working Party
CPI Corruption Perception Index
EACN European Anti-Corruption Network
EC Treaty European Community Treaty
ENP European Neighbourhood Policy
EP European Parliament
EU European Union
EU Treaty Treaty on European Union
FATF Financial Action Task Force
GRECO Group of States Against Corruption
JHA J ustice and Home Affairs
NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organization
NGO Non-Governmental Organisation
OECD Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
Development
OECD WG OECD Working Group on Bribery
OJ Offi cial Journal
OLAF E uropean Anti-Fraud Offi ce
OMC Open Method of Coordination
OSI O pen Society Institute
TI Transparency International
UN United Nations
UNCAC United Nations Convention Against Corruption
UNCATOC United Nations Convention Against Transnational
Organized Crime
WB World Bank
ix
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Tables and Figures
Tables
1.1: Member States and the CEE countries in
the 1999 TI CPI page 15
3.1: The government’s efforts to fi ght corruption 92
5.1: Evaluation of corruption in the Opinions
of July 1997 162
5.2: Evaluation of corruption in the Regular
Reports 1999–2003 166
5.3: The CEWP questionnaire on the underlying
causes of and measures against corruption 176
5.4: The CEWP questionnaire on the impact and
dimension of corruption 177
6.1: Ratifi cation of the Council of Europe instruments
by the Member States and the CEE countries 189
7.1: Corruption in the new Member States 219
7.2: Member States and candidate countries in the
Transparency International CPI 2008 2 52
Figures
1.1: Worldwide perceptions of corruption 14
3.1: Corruption as a major problem in
27 Member States 91
6.1: Anti-corruption intensity and the pull of
the European Union 207
x
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