Table Of ContentTHE EMERGENCE OF PROTO-APOCALYPTIC WORLD VIEWS
IN THE NEO-BABYLONIAN PERIOD: AN ANALYSIS
OF SELECTED PASSAGES FROM EZEKIEL
AND ISAIAH 40-55
A dissertation submitted to the Caspersen School of Graduates Studies
Drew University in partial fulfillment of
the requirements for the degree,
Doctor of Philosophy
Hong Pyo Ha
Drew University
Madison, New Jersey
May 2009
UMI Number: 3376833
Copyright 2009 by
Ha, Hong Pyo
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ABSTRACT
The Emergence of Proto-Apocalyptic Worldviews in the Neo-Babylonian Period:
An Analysis of Selected Passages from Ezekiel and Isaiah 40-55
Ph.D. Dissertation by
Hong Pyo Ha
Graduate Division of Religion
Drew Theological School May 2009
The discussion of the phenomena of apocalyptic has been very intense in the last few decades.
Together with other topics, the understanding of the emergence of proto-apocalyptic, the
forerunner of a sort for apocalyptic itself, has been quite disputed, especially in the
publications of two leading scholars on that topic, Paul D. Hanson and Stephen L. Cook. Firstly,
Hanson and Cook, though agreeing on the presence of what they identify as proto-apocalyptic
in the exilic community, draw upon different texts, while ignoring texts viewed as vital by the
other to the discussion. Secondly, Hanson sees proto-apocalyptic as emerging within
marginalized groups, i.e., as issuing from deprivation, focusing on Isaiah 40-55, whereas Cook
focuses on Ezekiel 38-39, taken to reflect the language and perspective of the central, power-
holding Zadokite priesthood which did not experience deprivation.
The present study focuses on the exilic texts taken up as "proto-apocalyptic" by either
Hanson or Cook and argues, contrary to Hanson, that Ezekiel 38-39 does reflect the exilic
period, and, contrary to Cook, that Second Isaiah must be considered. The present study seeks
an alternative hypothesis by presenting a more complete analysis of the nature of proto-
apocalyptic within the social and ideological context of the exilic community in Babylonia. My
study emphasizes a wider definition of deprivation, drawing in particular on Daniel Smith-
Christopher's attention to Post-Traumatic Stress Syndrome among the exiles as affecting both
peripheral and central groups, thus offering a more comprehensive analysis of the emergence
of proto-apocalyptic.
My conclusion is that proto-apocalyptic is an ideology produced during a time of
perceived crisis and offering hope to oppressed and beleaguered individuals and communities in
the exilic situation, whatever their status within the exilic community, by giving them an
alternative picture of the possible realities in the larger world. My understanding of the
emergence of proto-apocalyptic includes attention to the psychology of the exiles and draws on
new Neo-Babylonian and Persian period texts to illuminate the exilic context. I argue that the
emergence of proto-apocalyptic is an understandable response by rather differing groups—
central priestly and marginal prophetic—to the harsh experiences of the exilic period.
Word count: 351
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I. INTRODUCTION 1 -26
A. The Problem of Proto-Apocalyptic - 1-12
B. Research Design— 13-17
C. Methodological Considerations- 18-26
II. THE DATING OF THE PROPOSED
PROTO-APOCALYPTIC PASSAGES ~— 27-89
A. Dating Ezekiel 38-39 27-53
1. Ezekiel 38-39 as from the Neo-Babylonian Period 28-36
2. Ezekiel 38-39 as from the Neo-Babylonian period and
the early Persian period but prior to the rededication of
the temple in Jerusalem (515 B.C.E.) 36-47
3. Ezekiel 38-39 as from the early Persian period,
including after the rededication of the temple 47-51
4. Ezekiel 38-39 as from the late fifth to the Maccabean Period- 51-53
B. Dating Key Passages in Deutero-Isaiah (40-55) 54-89
1. Dating Deutero-Isaiah (40-55) -55-74
2. Hanson's Selected Four Passages 74-89
HI. THE JUDAEAN EXILES DURING THE
NEO-BABYLONIAN PERIOD 90-168
A. The Life of the Judaean Exiles 93-110
1. Forced Labor Practices Under the Neo-Babylonians 94-104
2. Judean Deportees/Captives Under the Neo-Babylonians 104-109
3. The Ethos of Life in Exile 109-110
B. Settlements in Babylonia 111-138
1. Living Together in the Outside of the Capital City 112-116
2. The Urban Exilic Groups 116-121
3. Resettlement: Probable Historical Background of Ezekiel 38-39 121-130
4. The Exilic Groups in the Babylonian Countryside —130-138
C. Social and Psychological Position of Jewish Exiles 139-164
1. Social Position of Jewish Exiles 139-143
2. Inclusive Perspectives on Deprivation in an Exiled Community 144-155
3. Apocalyptic Idea of Korean Diaspora in 1930s 156-168
VI. CONTEXTUAL READING OF EZEKIEL 38-39 AND THE PASSAGES
OF ISAIAH 40-55 AS PROTO-APOCALYPTIC TEXTS OF THE
EXILIC PERIOD 169-232
A. Reading Ezekiel 38-39 in Terms of the Babylonian Exile— 169-181
B. Reading Selected Passages in Isaiah 40-55 in Terms of the
Babylonian Exile 182-194
C. Cook's Understanding of Ezekiel 38-39 in Reference to
the Babylonian Exile and the Question of Deprivation 195-232
1. Reference to the Babylonian Exile 197-206
2. Question of Deprivation 206-224
3. Ezekiel's Group as Dominated but Central- 225-232
V. PROTO-APOCALYPTIC IN THE NEO-BABYLONIAN
EXILIC PERIOD 233-287
A. Basic Features of Proto-Apocalyptic - 233-250
B. Selected Proto-Apocalyptic Passages
in the Neo-Babylonian Exilic Period 251-272
1. Ezekiel 38-39 251 -260
2. Isaiah 51:9-11 260-272
C. Mythic Motifs in Proto-Apocalyptic Passages
in Ezekiel 38-39 and Isaiah 40-55 273-287
VI. CONCLUSION 288-301
BIBLIOGRAPHY 302-321
1
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
A. The Problem of Proto-Apocalyptic
In the last few decades a great deal of discussion has taken place on the
phenomena of apocalyptic and the study of apocalyptic stuff and the concept of proto-
apocalyptic have made rapid strides. In particular, the contributions of two scholars, Paul
D. Hanson and Stephen L. Cook,1 have been especially important. Although they offer
different views of the nature and emergence of apocalyptic, both refer to a text category
of "proto-apocalyptic" in somewhat parallel or overlapping ways. Before one can turn to
differentiation between these two scholars, in regard to proto-apocalyptic, however, it is
important to review some of the other important differences between them.
Firstly, Hanson (selections from Deutero-Isaiah) and Cook (Ezekiel 38-39)
The relevant works are P. D. Hanson, "Jewish Apocalyptic against its Near Eastern
Environment," RB 78 (1971): 31-59; "Old Testament Apocalyptic Re-examined,"
Interpretation 25 (1971): 454-479; The Dawn of Apocalyptic (Philadelphia: Fortress Press,
1975, 1979); The People Called {San Francisco: Harper, 1986), 253-311; and Old
Testament Apocalyptic (IBT; Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1987); and S. L. Cook,
Prophecy & Apocalypticism: The Postexilic Social Setting (Minneapolis: Fortress Press,
1995); and The Apocalyptic Literature (IBT; Nashville: Abingdon, 2003). Note the
discussion of their work in Charles E. Carter, The Emergence ofYehud in the Persian
Period: A Social and Demographic Study (JSOT Sup297; Sheffield: Sheffield Academic
Press, 1999), 316-323; and in Jon L. Berquist, Judaism in Persia's Shadow: A Social and
Historical Approach (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 1995), 7-9.
Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 127, 310-312.
2
drew upon "proto-apocalyptic" texts dated, at least in part, to the exilic period. Although
Cook also labels Zechariah 1-8 and Joel as "proto-apocalyptic," these two texts are
excluded in my discussion because these texts are commonly dated to the postexilic
period.3 Secondly, these two scholars agree upon the socio-historical context out of
which the "proto-apocalyptic" perspective grew, in their respective texts, in spitie of
different emphases: for Hanson, the exilic Jewish community and for Cook, the exilic
community together with the restored community in Yehud; and also, for Hanson, the
productive group is the the visionary group who experienced deprivation and failed to
gain control of the restoration cult in the early post-exilic community, whereas for Cook
it is the the centrally located Zadokite priesthood.
Thirdly, although one needs to give special attention to their contrasting ideas of
the relationship of proto-apocalyptic to apocalyptic, both these scholars4 see the
apocalyptic worldview as preceded by a "proto-apocalyptic" perspective that took shape
among the exiles during the Neo-Babylonian or early Persian period. In particular, both
scholars' share a common area by putting "proto-apocalyptic" (chronologically) in
between prophecy (Cook: "visions of Amos as nonapocalyptic visions"5 vs. Hanson:
"prophetic eschatology"6) and apocalyptic (Cook: "the visions of Daniel as "full-blown
Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 2; 34-35.
4 For Cook's ambiguous attitude for this matter, see Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism,
26 n. 24; 34; 35.
5 Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 34.
Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 10-11.
3
apocalyptic"7 vs. Hanson: Daniel as "apocalyptic eschatology" ), though they offer a
different understanding of the "trajectory" between prophecy and apocalyptic.9
On the other hand, the different constructions developed by these two scholars
point to some basic problems. Firstly, the constructs draw upon different texts. Hanson
identifies Deutero-Isaiah (as a whole) as proto-apocalyptic, with special attention to
Isaiah 40, Isa 43:18-19, and Isa 51:9-11.10 With regard to texts illustrative of proto-
apocalyptic, Hanson identifies a number of passages in Isaiah 40-55 as showing "proto-
apocalyptic" in the exilic period, and essentially bypasses Ezekiel 38-39, which he
identifies as representing a post-exilic apocalyptic perspective reinterpreting Ezekiel 1-37,
40-48. As Cook notes, "he (Hanson) assumes that a central priest such as Ezekiel would
not have had an apocalyptic worldview."11 So Hanson judges Ezekiel 38-39 as irrelevant
to the discussion of the emergence of apocalyptic.12 On the other hand, Cook labels
Ezekiel 38-39, Zechariah 1-8, and Joel as proto-apocalyptic13 that "occurs in books from
central priestly circles of exilic and postexilic times,"14 thus making a case against the
association of apocalyptic with deprivation. Cook challenges Hanson's view by arguing
Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 34.
Q
Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 7-12.
Carter, The Emergence ofYehud, 318 n. 171.
10 Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 127; 310-312.
Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 86.
12 Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic (1979), 234 n. 47; and The People, 270. Cf. Old
Testament Apocalyptic, 37.
Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 2; 34-35.
4 Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 12.
4
for at least a portion of Ezekiel 38-39 as presenting "proto-apocalyptic" in the exilic
period.15 Curiously, Cook barely mentions the exilic texts in Isaiah 40-55. For Hanson,
Ezekiel 38-39, Zechariah 1-8 and Joel, as post-exilic, are merely of secondary importance.
Secondly, Hanson adopts the viewpoint of social theorists such as Weber,
Mannheim, and Troeltsch,16 who see apocalyptic as emerging from within marginalized
groups or a minority group, i.e., in association with alienation and deprivation.17 Hanson
places the social setting of the emergence of "apocalyptic eschatology" within a
postexilic conflict between the Third Isaiah prophetic group, including groups of
disenfranchised Levites, and the Zadokite-dominated priestly group in charge of the
temple. If so, a question arises as to the character of "proto-apocalyptic" in the exilic
period? Hanson finds a shared conflict relationship associated with "proto-apocalyptic"
in the exilic period, involving the adaptation of the ancient conflict myth18 imvolving the
Divine Warrior, Yahweh, and, e.g., Yamm, used again in the exilic situation after the fall
of Jerusalem and the temple. The goal of divine conflict was to restore the historical
entity Israel. "An event of the realm of plain history would provide the context of the
divine act, namely, the fall of the Babylonian Empire."19
Cook, Prophecy & Apocalypticism, 111. "[T]he earlier core of the Gog passage
probably comes from the end of Ezekiel's ministry in Babylon. Perhaps it was written
during the rise of Cyrus (c. 555 B.C.E.)."
16 Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 212-214 (Weber and Mannheim); 215-216
(Troeltsch).
17 "[F]or the crisis which sociologists find at the root of every apocalyptic movement
is a minority phenomenon." "A new apocalyptic mood began to descend upon the
brooding minority." See Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 2. See also p. 214.
18 Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 23, 126-128.
19 Hanson, Dawn of Apocalyptic, 127.
