Table Of ContentIET Power and Energy Series 38
The Electric Car T The Electric Car
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Development and future of battery,
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hybrid and fuel-cell cars l Development and future of battery,
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c hybrid and fuel-cell cars
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This book covers the development of electric cars from Mike Westbrook was manager
their early days to pure electric, fuel-cell and new hybrid of technological research with Ford
models in production. It covers the latest technological Motor Company at Dunton, Essex, C
issues faced by automotive engineers working on electric and has now retired after 33 years a
in the automotive industry. He
cars, including charging, infrastructure, safety and costs,
has also been Visiting Professor at r
as well as making predictions about future developments
Southampton University, Chairman
and vehicle numbers. Considerable work has gone into of the IEE Computing and Control
electric car and battery development in the last ten years, Division (1983–4), Vice-President
with the prospect of substantial improvements in range of the Institute of Physics (1992–6)
and performance in battery cars as well as in hybrids and and IEE Faraday Lecturer (1987–8).
those using fuel cells. The book comprehensively covers He has been author or co-author Michael H. Westbrook
this important subject and will be of particular interest to of 29 technical papers and a book
engineers working on electric vehicle design, development Automotive Sensors (IOP 1994), as
well as lecturing extensively in the
and use, as well as managers interested in the key
UK and USA.
business factors vital for the successful transfer of electric
cars into the mass market.
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The Institution of Engineering and Technology
www.theiet.org
0 85296 013 1
978-0-85296-013-4
PO038 HB cover.indd 1 22/02/2007 14:54:56
IET PowEr and EnErgy SErIES 38
Series Editors: Prof. A.T. Johns
D.F. Warne
The Electric Car
Other volumes in this series:
Volume 1 Power circuit breaker theory and design C.H. Flurscheim (Editor)
Volume 4 Industrial microwave heating A.C. Metaxas and R.J. Meredith
Volume 7 Insulators for high voltages J.S.T. Looms
Volume 8 Variable frequency AC-motor drive systems D. Finney
Volume 10 SF6 switchgear H.M. Ryan and G.R. Jones
Volume 11 Conduction and induction heating E.J. Davies
Volume 13 Statistical techniques for high voltage engineering W. Hauschild and
W. Mosch
Volume 14 Uninterruptable power supplies J. Platts and J.D. St Aubyn (Editors)
Volume 15 Digital protection for power systems A.T. Johns and S.K. Salman
Volume 16 Electricity economics and planning T.W. Berrie
Volume 18 Vacuum switchgear A. Greenwood
Volume 19 Electrical safety: a guide to causes and prevention of hazards
J. Maxwell Adams
Volume 21 Electricity distribution network design, 2nd edition E. Lakervi and
E.J. Holmes
Volume 22 Artificial intelligence techniques in power systems K. Warwick, A.O. Ekwue
and R. Aggarwal (Editors)
Volume 24 Power system commissioning and maintenance practice K. Harker
Volume 25 Engineers’ handbook of industrial microwave heating R.J. Meredith
Volume 26 Small electric motors H. Moczala et al.
Volume 27 AC-DC power system analysis J. Arrill and B.C. Smith
Volume 29 High voltage direct current transmission, 2nd edition J. Arrillaga
Volume 30 Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) Y-H. Song (Editor)
Volume 31 Embedded generation N. Jenkins et al.
Volume 32 High voltage engineering and testing, 2nd edition H.M. Ryan (Editor)
Volume 33 Overvoltage protection of low-voltage systems, revised edition P. Hasse
Volume 34 The lightning flash V. Cooray
Volume 35 Control techniques drives and controls handbook W. Drury (Editor)
Volume 36 Voltage quality in electrical power systems J. Schlabbach et al.
Volume 37 Electrical steels for rotating machines P. Beckley
Volume 38 The electric car: development and future of battery, hybrid and fuel-cell
cars M. Westbrook
Volume 39 Power systems electromagnetic transients simulation J. Arrillaga and
N. Watson
Volume 40 Advances in high voltage engineering M. Haddad and D. Warne
Volume 41 Electrical operation of electrostatic precipitators K. Parker
Volume 43 Thermal power plant simulation and control D. Flynn
Volume 44 Economic evaluation of projects in the electricity supply industry H. Khatib
Volume 45 Propulsion systems for hybrid vehicles J. Miller
Volume 46 Distribution switchgear S. Stewart
Volume 47 Protection of electricity distribution networks, 2nd edition J. Gers and
E. Holmes
Volume 48 Wood pole overhead lines B. Wareing
Volume 49 Electric fuses, 3rd edition A. Wright and G. Newbery
Volume 51 Short circuit currents J. Schlabbach
Volume 52 Nuclear power J. Wood
Volume 905 Power system protection, 4 volumes
The Electric Car
Development and future of battery,
hybrid and fuel-cell cars
Michael H. Westbrook
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Co-published by The Institution of Engineering and Technology, London, United Kingdom
and Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001, USA
First published 2001
Reprinted with new cover 2007
This publication is copyright under the Berne Convention and the Universal Copyright
Convention. All rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research
or private study, or criticism or review, as permitted under the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act, 1988, this publication may be reproduced, stored or transmitted, in any
form or by any means, only with the prior permission in writing of the publishers, or in
the case of reprographic reproduction in accordance with the terms of licences issued
by the Copyright Licensing Agency. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside those
terms should be sent to the publishers at the undermentioned address:
The Institution of Engineering and Technology
Michael Faraday House
Six Hills Way, Stevenage
Herts, SG1 2AY, United Kingdom
www.theiet.org
While the author and the publishers believe that the information and guidance given
in this work are correct, all parties must rely upon their own skill and judgement when
making use of them. Neither the author nor the publishers assume any liability to
anyone for any loss or damage caused by any error or omission in the work, whether
such error or omission is the result of negligence or any other cause. Any and all such
liability is disclaimed.
The moral rights of the author to be identified as author of this work have been
asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Westbrook, M.H. (Michael Hereward), 1926–
The electric car – (IEE power series; no. 38)
1. Automobiles, Electric 2. Automobiles, Electric–History
I. Title II. Institution of Electrical Engineers
629.2’293
ISBN (10 digit) 0 85296 013 1
ISBN (13 digit) 978-0-85296-013-4
Typeset in the UK by Mackreth Media Services, Hemel Hempstead
Printed in the UK by TJ International Ltd, Padstow
Reprinted in the UK by Lightning Source UK Ltd, Milton Keynes
Contents
Preface ix
Acknowledgements xi
Glossary XV
1 Introduction 1
2 The history of electric cars up to 1990 6
2.1 The early days 6
2.2 The first road vehicles 9
2.3 Competition for speed and reliability 11
2.4 Electric vehicles compete with steam and gasoline 15
2.5 The golden age 16
2.6 Cost problems for electric drive 19
2.7 The dark ages (1925-1960) 19
2.8 The modern era 20
2.8.1 The 1960s 20
2.8.2 The 1970s 24
2.8.3 The 1980s 25
General References 28
3 Propulsion methods 29
3.1 DC motors 29
3.1.1 Series-wound motors 31
3.1.2 Shunt-wound motors 33
3.1.3 Compound-wound motors 33
3.1.4 Separately excited motors 33
3.2 AC motors 34
3.2.1 Induction motors 35
3.2.2 Synchronous motors 37
3.2.3 The brushless DC motor 39
3.2.4 Switched reluctance motors 40
3.3 Motor cooling 43
3.4 Transmission systems 44
References 47
General References 47
vi Contents
4 Controls and power electronics 48
4.1 Electronic energy management 49
4.2 Power electronics 52
4.3 Power switching devices 54
4.3.1 The bipolar Darlington 55
4.3.2 The thyristor 56
4.3.3 The gate turn-off thyristor (GTO) 57
4.3.4 The MOS-controlled thyristor (MCT) 58
4.3.5 TheMOSFET 58
4.3.6 The insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT) 59
4.4 Semiconductor cooling 60
4.5 Capacitors 62
4.6 Current measurement 63
References 64
5 Energy sources 1 - Storage batteries 65
5.1 Lead-acid 69
5.2 Advanced lead-acid 70
5.3 Valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) 71
5.4 Metal foil lead-acid 74
5.5 Nickel-iron 75
5.6 Nickel-zinc 76
5.7 Nickel-cadmium 77
5.8 Nickel-metal hydride 78
5.9 Sodium-sulphur 79
5.10 Sodium-nickel chloride 80
5.11 Lithium-iron sulphide 81
5.12 Lithium-solid polymer 82
5.13 Lithium-ion 83
5.14 Aluminium-air and zinc-air 84
5.15 Batteries for hybrid vehicles 85
5.16 Summary - storage batteries 86
References 86
Energy sources 2 - Other technologies 88
6.1 The supercapacitor 88
6.2 Fuel-cells 89
6.3 Solar cells 92
6.4 The flywheel 93
6.5 The hydraulic accumulator 96
6.6 Compressed-air storage 97
6.7 Thermal energy storage 97
6.8 Summary - non-battery energy sources 97
References 98
Contents vii
7 Charging 99
7.1 Early systems 99
7.2 Charging techniques for modern lead-acid batteries 101
7.3 Charging techniques for nickel-based batteries 105
7.4 Charging techniques for non-aqueous batteries 107
7.5 Battery state-of-charge measurement 107
7.6 Battery management 109
7.7 Connection methods 111
7.8 Battery exchange 115
7.9 Infrastructure implications 116
7.10 Recharging/refuelling of other power storage devices 118
References 119
8 Vehicle design and safety 121
8.1 Effect of battery weight and volume 121
8.2 Designing for minimum weight 122
8.3 Safety of batteries 123
8.4 Safety of alternative energy generating and storage systems 125
8.5 Battery disposal and recycling 126
8.6 Safety of other electrical systems 126
8.7 General design and safety issues 127
8.7.1 Heating and air-conditioning 127
8.7.2 Auxiliary power subsystem 128
8.7.3 Braking, suspension and wheel systems 128
8.7.4 Rolling resistance 129
References 131
9 Battery electric cars 132
9.1 Production electric cars 132
9.1.1 The General Motors EV1 134
9.1.2 The Ford Think City 137
9.1.3 The Nissan Hypermini 139
9.1.4 The Toyota RAV 4 EV 140
9.2 Prototype and experimental electric cars 141
10 Hybrid electric cars 142
10.1 Hybrid system configurations 143
10.2 All-electric hybrid vehicles 144
10.3 Electromechanical hybrid vehicles 145
10.4 Heat engine-electric hybrid vehicles 146
10.4.1 Series hybrids 147
10.4.2 Parallel hybrids 148
10.5 Hybrid concepts 151
10.6 Production hybrid cars 154
10.6.1 The Honda Insight 154
10.6.2 The Toyota Prius 156
viii Contents
10.6.3 The Nissan Tino 163
10.7 Prototype and experimental hybrid cars 163
References 164
General References 164
11 Fuel-cell electric cars 165
11.1 Hydrogen fuelling 165
11.2 Reforming 166
11.3 Infrastructure 169
11.4 Safety 170
11.5 Prototype and experimental fuel-cell electric cars 173
References 173
12 Economics of electric cars 174
12.1 Electric car cost comparisons 174
12.2 Cost of batteries and fuel-cells 176
12.3 Hybrid costs 177
12.4 Electricity supply and charging 178
12.5 Charging at home and away 179
12.6 Can the electric car compete economically? 179
References 180
13 Future developments 181
13.1 Propulsion methods 182
13.2 Energy sources 182
13.3 Controls and power electronics 186
13.4 Charging 187
13.5 Vehicle design and safety 189
13.6 Hybrid technology 190
13.7 The electric car of 2025 190
References 193
Preface
In more than 33 years in the automotive industry I have had the good
fortune to be involved with many developments in electrical and electronic
technology that are now commonplace in today's road vehicles. The one
area where to the outside world very little progress has been made is that of
electric vehicles.
Hailed at various times as the answer to the adverse effect of the internal
combustion engine on urban pollution and the generation of greenhouse
gases, and in spite of considerable work by the automotive industry since
1990 under the spur of the California zero emission mandate, electric vehi-
cles and particularly electric cars have failed to raise much interest in the
car-buying public. Their limitations of range and performance are well
known and have not been helped by the unsuccessful launching of electric
cars of very limited capability in recent years. Considerable work has,
however, gone into electric car and battery development in the last ten years
with the prospect of substantial improvements in range and performance in
battery cars as well as in hybrids and those using fuel cells.
I have been thinking of writing this book for some time, but I felt that
progress in the last few years had been sufficiently encouraging to make it
possible to predict that by 2025 the pressures of escalating oil prices and
increasing concerns about pollution would make electric propulsion both
economically viable and attractive to the car buyer and that a book on the
subject would be of interest to a wide range of people. Over the last two
years, therefore, I have attempted to gather all the available information on
current electric vehicle technology together and set it out in what I hope is
an easily readable form. I have also made my own predictions of the electric
cars that will be available by 2025 when I would expect at least 25 per cent of
all cars on the road to be electric in some form.
I would like to thank my wife for her forbearance with my disappearance
nearly every afternoon for the last two years to my office to work on this
book. I would also like to thank John West, who very generously has taken
time from his busy life as a consultant on electrical machines and expert on
electric vehicle drive trains, to read the first draft of the book. He has made
many very valuable suggestions and I have incorporated these into the final
