The Ecology of Food Deserts Hillary John Shaw Submitted in accordance with the requirements for ...

258 Pages·2011·24.1 MB·English

The Ecology
of
Food Deserts
Hillary John Shaw
Submitted in for
the the
accordance with requirements
degree PhD
of
The University Leeds
of
School Geography
of
December 2003
The is his
candidate confirms that the work submitted own and that appropriate credit
has been has been
to the
given where reference made work of others.
This has been it is
the that that
copy supplied on understanding copyright material and
from be
the thesis
no quotation may published without proper acknowledgement.
2
Acknowled2ements
This to the in Yorkshire
research owes much contributions of many respondents and
Lincolnshire be interviewed between 2000 2002. Also
their time to
who gave and
is information,
the
acknowledged contribution of many others who gave valuable
Britain, food deserts be
to
references, and contacts across enabling a wider picture of
obtained.
Also is help from Dr Dave
the
gratefully acknowledged guidance and my supervisor,
Clarke, for he has
the time to this
considerable given research.
Finally the like to thank his family for their
researcher would support and endurance
during
the this
period of research.
3
Abstract
The Ecology Food Deserts
of
During the second half of the twentieth century there has been a transformation in the
bought in Britain. Global demographic trends
way groceries are economic, social, and
have helped the institution in 1950s Britain, to
supermarket, a shopping unknown gain
bought in UK in 2003. Accompanying
three the the
over quarters of share of groceries
has been decline in
this the
a major number of small neighbourhood shops selling
in fresh fruit
those
groceries, and especially selling and vegetables.
Because the have tended to locate in from the
many of supermarkets areas away
districts have `food deserts',
the term,
residential where smaller shops closed, a new
language in 1990s. Lack foods, fruit
the the to the
entered of easy access certain and
local not in
that the tended to
vegetables remaining shops stock any great variety or
has developments in
quantity, combined with technology, society, and the economy to
the dietary The disabled,
reduce quality of many people. poor, elderly, and other
disadvantaged but immune
groups are especially affected, the wealthy are not to this
This lack be for
either. of access can seen as a problem of social exclusion those
there imposed A large those is
affected, and are wider costs on society. part of costs
health by diet. There implications for
to
related problems caused a poor are also crime,
housing, neighbourhood sustainability, and transport. Those affected, and their
families, too.
may suffer psychologically
This has investigated from different
research a variety of geographical areas and people
backgrounds discover food deserts
to
socio-economic which groups may affect, and
have been by The
whether some groups might overlooked earlier research. multiple
factors that may contribute to lack of access to a nutritious diet are examined in order to
build food deserts, how
their
a picture of what may cause people cope with effects now,
the
and what measures are possible, within current economic climate of globalisation
to food deserts. A
and neo-liberal governance, alleviate or eliminate such classification
of food deserts is proposed, and how this classification may be of use as a policy tool to
food
alleviate access problems.
4
Contents
2 Acknowledgements
p.
3 Abstract
p.
4 Contents
p.
8 List figures tables
p. of and
9 List
p. of abbreviations
10 Notes
p. on referencing system of quotes and places
I Chapter One. What Food Deserts they important
p.! are and why are
11 1.1. Origin the term 'Food Desert'
p. of
12 1.2. The diet
p. cost of a poor
15 1.3. The
p. research questions
15 1.4. Ecological
p. comparisons
16 1.5. The
p. research approach
17 1.6. The
p. research structure
18 1.7. Area the
p. of research
19 1.8. Brief 2 to 8
p. summary of chapters
20 Chapter Two. A development. the local
p. review of supermarket effects on
these
retail access, and previous research on effects
20 2.1. Introduction: (retailing) history
p. why matters
in Britain
21 2.2. The
p. origin of supermarket retailing
21 2.2.1. From fairs to the the
p. peak of corner shop
22 2.2.2. Globalisation the
and start of self-service shopping
p.
23 2.2.3. The USA innovations in Britain
p. arrival of retailing
24 2.2.4. Globalisation. Thatcherism. increase in inequality in the UK
p.
local
28` 2.2.5. The
p. silencing of communities
in Britain
29 2.2.6. Demographic
p: changes
31 23. The the in Britain
p. growth of supermarkets
31 2.3.1. Current definitions
p. of a supermarket
32 2.3.2. Increase in in
numbers of supermarkets. size and geographical coverage
p.
36 2.3.3 Increase in
market share of supermarkets
p.
37 2.3.4. Diversification
of supermarket's product range
p.
38 2.3.5. Longer hours
opening of supermarkets
p.
innovations. de-skilling
39 2.3.6 Technological
p.
41 2.3.7. Market the to formats
p. segmentation and return smaller
46 2.3.8. Supermarket
p. prices
5
48 2.4. A developments,
p. review of research already completed on new retail
in food
their
retail changes, changes consumption, and social and economic effects
48 2.4.1. General direction this 1970 2003
p. of research,
-
49 2.4.2. Examples decline in facilities
this
p. of research rural
-
50 2.4.3. Out
p. of town centres, retail centres, and their effects on city centres
50 2.4.4. Towards
p. a social exclusion perspective
53 2.4.5. Supermarkets. in Leeds.
p. regeneration, and social exclusion, studies
Bradford, Cardiff, Glasgow. Coventry
and
56 2.4.6. Who has done
discovered
p. these studies and what was
56 2.4.7. Methodology food
p. of research on retail change and consumption
58 Chapter Three. Methodology in
p. used this research
58 3.1. Introduction
p. a qualitative approach
-why
60 3.2. Mapping the distribution food
p.
of and other retailing
60 3.2.1. Aims
the
p. of mapping
61 3.2.2. Selection definition be
p. and of the shops to mapped
63 3.2.3. Procedures
the
p. of mapping
65 3.2.4. Ethical issues
p.
65 3.2.5. Problems the how
p. of mapping and overcome
67 3.2.6. Drawing
the
p. maps
67 3.3. Interviewing
the
p. respondents
67 3.3.1. Aims interviewing
the
p. of
67 3.3.2. Selection types to be interviewed
p. of of respondents
68 3.3.3. Selection for interviewing
p. of actual respondents
73 3.3.4. Ethical issues
p.
73 3.3.5 Problems interviewing how
p. of and overcome
74 3.3.6. Principles drawing interview
the
p. of up and administering schedule
77 3.3.7. Analysing interview data
the
p.
79 Chapter Four. Results the interviews
p. of shops and shops mapping
79 4.1. Development 1950
p. of small shops since
79 4.1.1. General trends in
p. small shops
82 4.1.2. Loss financial facilities, banks Post Offices
p. of and
83 4.1.3. Other in
p. changes rural economy
85 4.1.4. Loss facilities
p. of retail
86 4.2. The
p. economics of small shops
86 4.2.1. The different types faced by
p. of costs small shops
88 4.2.2. Business lack from banks
p. regulations, of support and councils
90 4.2.3. Prices in
p. small shops, wholesalers, supermarkets
6
92 4.3. Social demographic decline in
p. and causes of small shops
92 4.3.1. Changes in diet, food technology, RPI
p.
93 4.3.2. Traffic
p. and parking
95 4.3.3. Crime
p.
98 4.3.4. Neighbourhood decline,
p. slum clearance, gentrification
99 4.3.5. Students local
p. and shops
99 4.3.6 Old die, fade
they
p. shops never simply away
100 4.4. Small for
p. shops strategies survival
100 4.4.1. Specialisation diversification
p. or
102 4.4.2. Links businesses
to
p. other
105 4.4.3. Use
the
p. of space above shop
106 4.5 Outside help for
p. shops survival
106 4.5.1. Government
p. grants
108 4.5.2. Supporting
the
p. small shop's rent and rates
110 4.5.3. Town improvements
p.
110 4.5.4. Use
p. of the planning system to support small shops
113 4.5.5. Leisure. farmers
tourism,
p.
markets
115 4.6. The importance
p. of small shops
115 4.6.1. Importance
to the
p. community
116 4.6.2. Importance
p. of employment at small shops
116 4.6.3. Small important
to the
p. shops are not community
117 4.7. Results the
p. of shops mapping
117 4.7.1. Historical development
the the
p. of shops within research study area
120 4.7.2. The figures 10 16
p. shops maps,
-
127 4.7.3. What food
the
p. maps show
136 4.8. food desert
p. coping strategies and classification
136 4.8.1. Introduction
p.
137 4.8.2. `Ability' based
p. coping strategies
138 4.8.3. `Assets' based
p. coping strategies
139 4.8.4. `Attitude' based
p. coping strategies
141 4.8.5. Who these basis for ing
p. might use coping strategies and where. a classif
food deserts
145 Chapter Five, Results the interviews
p. of shopper and agency
145 5.1. Pedestrian from houses
to
p. access shops
145 5.1.1. How far
to the
p. people will walk shops
147 5.1.2. Could housing developments be better
p.
provided with shops
150 5.1.3. Environmental
p.
and social concerns over supermarket shops
7
150 5.2. Access by bus to
shops
p.
150 5.2.1. The importance trips to bus
p. of shopping companies
p. 151 5.2.2. Bus services traffic congestion, and the growth of out-of-town shopping
buses
154 5.2.3. Disabled. to
p. access
156 5.2.4. Supermarket free buses
p.
157 5.3 Getting to do the
p. others shopping
159 5.4. Internet
p. grocery retailing
159 5.4.1. Access to Internet
p. grocery retailing
160 5.4.2. Financial barriers to Internet
p. ordering
Net
161 5.4.3. Problems the
p. with ordering groceries on
162 5.5. Mobile
p. shops
164 5.6. Access into by disabled
p. shop premises
164 5.6.1. Access to the the
p. outside of shop
165 5.6.2. Access to inside the
p. shop
166 5.6.3. Access to
p. supermarkets
167 5.6.4. Access to food
p. purchased
167 5.6.5. The Disability Discrimination Act, buildings
p. making accessible
169 5.7. Prices in
p. shops
169 5.8 Ethnic barriers to food
p. access
174 5.9. Social barriers to food
p. access
180 Chapter Six. Analysis the interview data
and summary of
p.
180 6.1. Review trends UK food
p. of global affecting retailing
182 6.2. Globalisation the interview
p. and results
182 6.2.1. The the
p. arrival of supermarkets
businesses
fiscal
183 6.2.2. The
p. political and effects of globalisation on small
for businesses in
185 6.2.3. Government
p. support small a climate of globalisation
local
186 6.2.4. Loss the
p. of voice of community
187 6.2.5. Crime
p. and small shops
187 6.2.6. Psychological
costs and assets of small shops
p.
188 6.2.7. A to the local
p. return
188 6.2.8. Time
p. pressures on consumers
189 6.2.9. Ethnic
communities and shopping
p.
190 6.2.10. The importance for the disabled
of micro-geography. access
p.
190 6.2.11. Economic benefits local
of grocery shops
p.
193 Chapter Seven. Initial from this
p. conclusions research
193 7.1. Ten different types food desert
of
p.
200 7.2. How big is desert it be
p. a and can crossed
8
203 7.3. Food deserts initiatives in
already progress
p.
204 7.4. Food desert initiatives by
p. suggested respondents and other agencies
204 7.4.1. Initiatives to improve the diet the disadvantaged
of
p.
206 7.4.2. Tax to
p. changes support small shops
208 7.4.3. Grants,
p. subsidies, and regulations
209 7.4.4. Rent
p. and rates reductions
210 7.4.5. Better transport, better
p. not shops
211 7.5. Other food desert initiatives
p. possibly needed
214 7.6. Food Britain
p. retailing outside
219 Chapter Eight. Final
p. conclusions
219 8.1. Review the
p. of research questions
220 8.2. Review the this
p. of methodological approach of research
221 8.3. What has been to by this
p. contributed earlier studies research
222 8.4. The importance food deserts
p. of classifying
223 8.5. What future for food deserts?
p.
225 8.6. Future food desert
p. research
Appendices
226 1)Categories interviewed,
p. of agencies questions asked
234 2)Questions to
p. asked shoppers
235 3)List interviewed
p. of agencies
240 4)a)Shops interviewed in Leeds Scunthorpe
p. and
241 4)b)Shops interviewed in North Lincolnshire
p. rural
242 5)a)Shoppers interviewed in Leeds Scunthorpe
p. and
243 5)b)Shoppers Shops interviewed in North Lincolnshire
p. rural
244 6)Distance interviewed to the
p. shoppers could walk shops
245 Bibliography
p.
List figures tables
of and
30 Figure 1 Numbers UK 1901,2001,
to
p. of pensioners, various ages, and projected
2060
31 Figure 2 Percentage UK households by broken down
p. of occupied single persons,
by 1971 2021
to
age and sex, and projected
32 Figure 3 Typical floor different
types
p. space sizes of of grocery stores
33 Figure 4 Numbers in the UK, 1960-2000
p. of supermarkets
9
37 Figure 5 Percentage the UK held by the biggest four
p. share of grocery market
1982-2002
supermarket operators,
in UK
80 Figure 6 Numbers the their
p. of single store grocery stores and market share,
1950-2000
94 Figure 7 Numbers in the UK, 1910-2000
p. pf cars and vans
94 Figure 8 Percentage UK households 0,1, 2 1950-1990
p. of with or or more cars,
120 Figure 9 Percentage Lincolnshire/North Lincolnshire UK
p. of parishes, and
facilities, 2000
parishes, without selected
121 Figure 10 Leeds Scunthorpe `low-mobility' 1999
p. and shops map,
122 Figure l Leeds Scunthorpe `low-mobility' 2002
p. and shops map,
el
123 Figure 12 Leeds Scunthorpe `high-mobility' 1999
p. and shops map,
124 Figure 13 Leeds Scunthorpe `high-mobility' 2002
p. and shops map,
125 Figure 14 North Lincolnshire 1999
p. shops map
126 Figure 15 North Lincolnshire 2002
p. shops map
135 Figure 16 Leeds Scunthorpe 2002, differentiated by type food
p. and maps, of
retailing
197 Figur, 17 Ternary diagram food deserts
ten-fold
p. a of a classification of
199 Figure 18 Hypothetical food desert ternary diagram for `Tropheton'
p. quantitative
202 Figure 19 Hypothetical `isotropheremos' for Leeds
p. map part of east
32 Table 1 Numbers in the UK, 1960-2000
p. of supermarkets
businesses in UK, 1950-2000
70 Table 2 Numbers the
p. of single-store retailing
79 Table 3 Market independent in the UK, 1900-2000
p. share of small grocery stores
80 Table 4 Number independent in the UK, 1950-2000
p. of convenience stores
81 Table 5 Changes in food UK, 1970-1980
p. numbers of other shops,
food farmers
84 Table 6 Comparison to
p. of supermarket retail prices and prices paid
143 Table 7 `Retailing
p. neighbourhoods' and some possible coping strategies
194 Table 8 List food deserts identified from this
p. of possible research
196 Table 9 Classification food deserts by
of ability, assets, and attitude
p.
215. Table 10 Concentrations in the top five
grocery retailing: market shares of
p.
1992,
grocers, selected countries
List
of abbreviations
BOGOF `Buy One Get One Free'. A form discounting
= common of at supermarkets
CPRE Council for the Protection Rural England
= of
few
CTN Confectionery, tobacconist, This
= and newsagent shop. shop may sell a very
items but See 3.2.2.
to
grocery not enough count as a small convenience store. section
10
DDA Disability Discrimination Act, 1995
=
DETR Department the Environment, Transport, the Regions
= of and
EZ Enterprise Zone
=
FTE Full Time Employee
=
GIS Geographical Information Systems
=
HA Housing Association
=
HWRCC Humber Wolds Rural Community Council
= and
IT Information Technology
=
LIPT Low Income Project Team
=
LNL Lincolnshire North Lincolnshire
= and
OFT Office Fair Trading
= of
PPG Policy Planning Guidance. A issued in
= and series of planning guidance notes
1996 by the then Prime Minister, John Major, the into
with aim of curbing urban sprawl
rural areas
RMI Retail Monitor International
=
RPI Retail Price Index
=
RPM Resale Price Maintenance
=
RSA Rural Shops Alliance
=
SRB Single Regeneration Budget
=
TCM Town Centre Management
=
WYPTA West Yorkshire Passenger Transport Authority
=
Notes the for interviewee locations
on referencing system quotes and
All by letter (A, R, or S) The letter to
quotes are sourced a and a number. refers quotes
from (A), (R), (S). The
that
agencies retailers or shoppers number corresponds with
in 4 6. For locations, is
to the
appendices grid referencing system used as marked on
the 1 to 6, Chapter Four. The letters LS to the Leeds/Scunthorpe
edges of maps refer
letters LN North Lincolnshire The
map; the refer to the rural map. numbers refer to the
then the the boundary. This follows the Ordnance
eastings, and northings, along map
Survey for National Grid
convention references.