Table Of Content.. .
N ~ *
-- 3Cd p= peY - - -.
.: -
. .
=E,: -"-- - :. :7-=- - t,-8= = !::!+i+ =.- .z . -k.- > .- E Z y'- ' L2 r* re w'- =eg-
~
The Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle
Upper Mantle Project: Scientific Report 21
The. Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle was prepared under the auspices of the International
Upper Mantle Committee by the following editorial group:
% x BELDLiSSD?5 edjt~irn chief
BRUCE C. HEEZEN
HISASHI KUNO
V. A. MAGNITSKY
TAKES1 NAGATA
A. R. RITSElLIA
GEORGE P. WOOLLARD
geophysical monograph 13
The Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle
structure, dynamic processes,
and their relation to
deep-seated geological phenomena
PEMBROKE J. HART
editor
American Geophysical Union
Washington, D. C.
1969
Published with the aid of a grant
from the Charles F. Kettering Foundation
National Academy of SciencesNational Research Council Publication 1708
Worldwide Book Number 87590013
Copyright @ 1969 by the American Geophysical Union
2100 Pennsylvania Avenue, N. W.
Washington, D. C. 20037
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number 75-600572
WILLIAM BYRD PRESS, RICHMOND, VIRQINIA
Foreword
AMONG
the major results of the Upper Mantle Project, two
are especially significant. First, it has been clearly demonstrated
that the earth is not radially symmetric: important lateral
inhomogeneities exist in the uppermost 700 kilometers. Second,
it is now clear that large-scale motions of the upper parts of
the earth are taking place now and have taken place in the
past. These two ideas may well hc coup!ed: the inhomogeneities
may be the evidence for the driving mechanism for the motions;
the motions, in turn, may provide the process whereby the in-
homogeneities are produced.
These results, the details and full significance of which were
unforeseen at the beginning of the Upper Mantle Project, led
to a clearer understanding of the essential interrelation of geo-
physical and geological phenomena. Thus, they are in large part
responsible for the decision of the International Union of Geodesy
and Geophysics and the International Union of Geological Sciences
jointly to propose a long-range program of studies of the solid
earth-beginning in 1972 under the sponsorship of the Inter-
national Council of Scientific Unions-with 'dynamics of the
earth's interior' as a principal focal theme.
The Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle was prepared under
the auspices of the International Upper Mantle Committee. It is
designed to give a broad survey of modern developments in solid
earth studies, with emphasis on the interrelation of geophysical,
geochemical, and geological observations. Thus, the monograph
serves not only as a review of achievements during the period of
the Upper Mantle Project but also underscores the relations of
these developments, with their uncertainties, to the future studies
of the earth's interior.
Inspiration for the preparation of the monograph was provided
by Professor V. V. Beloussov, whose vision and enthusiasm for
international cooperation in geosciences led to the Upper Mantle
Project, originally pla111ied for 1962-1964 but twice extended, thus
ending in 1970. Professor Beloussov also served as chief editor of
the group appointed by the Upper Mant!e Committee to prepare
the monograph. Artic!es were written by the various authors upon
invitation of this editorial group; responsibility for the statements
in the articles rests, of course, with the authors. We hope that the
diversity of views of the various authors will emphasize the com-
plexity of the problems of the earth's interior.
On behalf of the Upper Mantle Committee, it is a p!easure to
acknowledge the contributions to the UMC monograph, The
Earth's Crust and Upper Mantle, by many persons throughout
the world, especially the ninety-two authors, who devoted much
time and energy to preparing the articles; Professor Beloussov
and the other members of the editorial group, Professors Bruce C.
Heezen, Hisashi Kuno, V. A. Magnitsky, Takesi Nagata, A. Reinier
Ritsema, and George P. Woollard, who compiled the monograph;
Dr. Pembroke J. Hart, who did the comprehensive editorial work;
and Miss Mary Jane Miles, who was responsible for the effective
copy editing. Finally, I wish to thank the officers and the Mono-
graph Board of the American Geophysical Union for their coopera-
tion and encouragement in publication of the monograph of the
International Upper Mantle Committee.
LEON KNOPOFF
Preface
WE
HAVE many reasons to believe that the history of the
development of the earth's crust is fundamentally dependent on
processes in the upper mantle to a depth not exceeding 1000 km.
Because of this relation, the Upper Mantle Project was organized
as an international program of geophysical, geochemical, and geo-
logical studies concerning the 'upper mantle and its influence on
the development of the earth's crust!
Many important results have emerged during the course of
the Upper Mantle Project. Probably the most significant is the
delineation in some detail of the 'fine structure1-the lateral and
vertical variations of properties-of the upper mantle. These
results have fully convinced us that there is a fundamental rela-
tion between this fine structure, the motions of materials in the
upper mantle, and activities at or near the surface of the earth
such as earthquakes (and the types of earthquake motions),
volcanism, the building and deformation of mountains, and the
differentiation of various rock types, including concentrations that
are of economic interest.
We believe that recent results and work now under way will
soon lead to a major step forward in our understanding of the
interlocked processes of the crust and mantle. A great excitement
pervades this field of study, yet there are diverse and contra-
dictory opinions about the significance of the new developments.
The Upper Mantle Committee decided to prepare the present
monograph to bring together in a series of articles a compre-
hensive presentation about the many aspects of investigations of
the earth's crust and upper mantle, and their interrelations. The
articles were written by specialists in the respective fields, and
reflect their personal views of the nature of the problems, the sig-
nificance of the results, and the directions for future research. The
compilers did not try in any way to standardize the approaches or
bring them under some uniform scheme; on the contrary, they
believed that variations in methods of analysis and presentation
by the different authors would help the reader to recognize the
many contradictions in the study of the problems of the earth's
crust and upper mantle.
It is the hope of the compilers that the monograph will serve
not only as a reference and tutorial text, but that it will serve to
implant in the reader the excitement and enthusiasm of the
authors and will encourage him to make his personal contribution
to the solution of some of the many unsolved problems of the
earth's interior.
V. V. BELOUSSOV
Contents
Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . .. v
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii
1. Composition
Composition and Evolution of the Upper Mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . A. E. RINGWOOD 1
Density and Composition of the Upper Mantle: First Approximation as an
Olivine Layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .FRANCIS BIRCH 18
.
Chemical Composition of the Earth's Crust . A. B. RONOV AND A. A. YAROSHEVSKY 37
Isotope Geochemistry of Crust-Mantle Processes . . . . . .. . . . STANLEY R. HART as
2. Heat Flow
Thermal History of the Earth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. A. LUBIMOVA 63
Heat Flow in North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GENE SIMMONS AND ROBERT F. ROY 78
Heat Flow Map of Eurasia .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . E. A. LUBIMOVA AND B. G. POLYAK 82
Heat Flow in Oceanic Regions . . . . . . . . . . . . R. P. VON HERZEN AND W. H. K. LEE 88
Terrestrial Heat Flow in Volcanic Areas . . . . . . . . XI-ITI HORAI AND SEIYA UYEDA 95
3. Seismology
Seismology and Upper Mantle Investigations . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . A. R. RITSEMA 110
Seismicity of the Earth . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . SETUMI MIYAMURA 115
Tectonic Activity in North America as Indicated by Earthquakes
GEORGE P. WOOLLARD 125
Seismicity of Continental Asia and the Region of the Sea of Okhotsk, 1953-1965
E. F. SAV.4RENSKY AND N. V. GOLUBEVA 134
Seismicity of the European Area . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. V~T~ R N ~ K13 9
Seismicity of Southeast Australia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . J. c. JAEGER AND LESLEY READ 145
Seismicity of the Mid-Oceanic Ridge System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . LYNN R. SYKES 148
Worldwide Earthquake Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ANNE E. STEVENS 153
Mechanism of Earthquakes in and near Japan and Related Problems
MASAJI ICHIKAWA 160
The Field of Elastic Stresses Associated with Earthquakes
L. M. BALAKINA, L. A. MISHARINA, E. I. SHIROKOVA, AND A. V. VVEDENSKAYA 166
Zero Frequency Seismology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . FRANK PRESS 171
Prediction of Earthquakes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . TAKAHIRO HAGIWARA 174
Explosion Seismology: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . I. P. KOSMINSKAYA 177
ix
. . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . .
Explosion Seismic Studies in Western Europe H. c~oss
Seismic Crustal Studies in Southeastern Europe . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . v. B. SOLLOGUB
Explosion Seismology in the USSR
I. P. KOSMINSKAYA, N. A. BELYAEPSKY, AND I. S. VOLVOVSKY
Explosion Seismic Studies in North America
JOHN H. HEALY AND DAVID H. WARREN
. . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seismic Model of the Atlantic Ocean JOHN EWING
Explosion Seismic Refraction Studies of the Crust and Upper Mantle in the
Pacific and Indian Oceans . . . . . . . . GEORGE G. SHORJ,R ., AND RUSSELL W. RAITT
. . . . . . .. . . . . .. . . . .
Surface Waves and Crustal Structure JAMES N. BRUNE
Regional Variations of P-Wave Velocity in the Upper Mantle beneath North
America . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . EUGENE HERRIN
Upper Mantle Structure and Velocity Distribution in Eurasia . . . . JIRI VANEK
Anisotropy of the Upper Mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . RUSSELL W. RAITT
. . . . . . . . . .
Seismic Surface-Wave Data on the Upper Mantle JAMES DORMAN
Higher-Mode Surface Waves .. . . . . .. . . . . .. . .. . . . . . .. . .. .. . . . . . z. ALTERMAN
Attenuation of Seismic Waves in the Mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . LEON KNOPOFF
Seismic Models of the Upper Mantle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . JIRI VANEK
Earthquakes and Tectonics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . B. A. PETRUSHEVSKY
4. Gravity
Standardization of Gravity Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . GEORGE P. WOOLLARD
Figure of the Earth and Mass Anomalies Defined by Satellite Orbital Perturbations
M. A. KHAN
Gravity Anomalies as a Function of Elevation: Some Results in Western Europe
S. CORON
The Relation between the Earth's Crust, Surface Relief, and Gravity Field
in the USSR . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . R. M. DEMENITSKAYA AND N. A. BELYAEVSKY
Regional Variations in Gravity . .. . .. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . .. GEORGE P. WOOLLARD
. .
Gravity Field over the Atlantic Ocean MANIK TALWANI AND XAVIER LE PICHON
Gravity and Its Relation to Topography and Geology in the Pacific Ocean
PETER DEHLINGER
. . . .. . . . .. . . ..
Gravity Anomalies over Volcanic Regions ALEXANDER MALAHOFF
Recent Movements of the Earth's Crust and Isostatic Compensation
E. V. ARTWSHKOV -4ND I'U. A. MESCHERIKOV
5. Magnetism
Reduction of Geomagnetic Data and Interpretation of Anomalies
TAICESI NAGATA
