The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy: War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon

560 Pages·2013·45.66 MB·English

by  Mark Jarrett

Mark Jarrett holds an MA in International History from the London School of Eco-
nomics, a PhD in History from Stanford, and a Law degree from the University of
California, Berkeley. He has taught at Hofstra and Stanford and has worked as an
attorney at the world’s largest international law fi rm.
‘Th e system established by the Congress of Vienna is of great interest to both histo-
rians and political scientists, and Mark Jarrett’s is one of the rare treatments that will
appeal to both groups. His narrative gives a clear guidance through the complexities
of the era and his analysis engages the central arguments about the period. It is a
model treatment.’
—Robert Jervis, Professor of International and Public Aff airs and
Adlai E. Stevenson Professor of Political Science, Columbia University
‘Th is book is more than a comprehensive and richly detailed account of the com-
plex diplomatic and international relations in post-Napoleonic Europe, which will
undoubtedly become a standard reference in the curricula of university students. It is,
more importantly, a fascinating journey through the Europe of early the nineteenth
century, from Sicily to Russia, from England to the Balkans. Whereas other historians
mostly focus on the great powers that defeated Napoleon in 1815 (England, Prus-
sia, Austria and Russia), Mark Jarrett avidly researched and brilliantly presents the
diverse constellation of diplomatic interests and political movements that contrib-
uted to reshaping the European system.
Breaking free from the ideological prejudices still prevalent in the fi eld (whether
“international”, “national”, or “post-colonial”), Jarrett boldly assumes a broader per-
spective, where characters are seen as actors playing their respective roles within a
bigger game of War and Peace: the Congress System. His is therefore not the ordinary
Manichean account of “heroes” or “villains”, “victories” or “defeats”—except in the
minds of the characters themselves, which he depicts in a compassionate manner,
regardless of the sides they happened to take.
He does so with an impressive display of scholarship; he is among the fi rst English-
speaking authors to take the measure of southeastern Europe and Russia in that cru-
cial period—an accomplishment that has been long awaited. Under his pen, the East-
ern Question (the ongoing division of the Ottoman Empire) and the independence of
Greece are not presented as a mere chess game between ministries of colonial powers
for land and commerce; it is also a story of real people, involved in a game of life and
death.
In short, Th e Congress of Vienna and its Legacy successfully combines well-bal-
anced historical research with fresh and vivid history-telling in the best sense of the
word, truly enjoyable for all kinds of readers. Th is is one of the most comprehensively
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documented and captivating books on the history of the Congress System published
in years.’
—Stella Ghervas, Institut d’études avancées, Paris, and author of Réinventer la
tradition. Alexandre Stourdza et l’Europe de la Sainte-
Alliance (winner of the Guizot Prize of the Académie Française, 2009)
‘Mark Jarrett’s beautifully written book deploys a great deal of information without
ever getting lost in detail. It weaves together personality and policy, providing a clear
analysis of political structures as well as a vivid portrait of personalities.’
—James J. Sheehan, Dickason Professor in the Humanities and Professor of
Modern European History emeritus, Stanford University
‘Th is will become the defi nitive work on the Congress of Vienna with all its personali-
ties, intrigues and signifi cance for the nation-state and how we think of diplomacy
today. As someone who recently had responsibility for US policy at the UN and other
international organizations, the challenges of multilateral diplomacy continue, only
with more actors and problems of global scope. I wonder how a Castlereagh or Met-
ternich would deal with the frustrations and intransigence we see in the UN Security
Council. Or whether such persons could even emerge. It’s interesting that the Con-
gress of Vienna still holds value for a new kind of diplomacy that has taken shape.
Traditional multilateral organizations are often unable to address our greatest chal-
lenges, and what is emerging is a system of “variable geometry” where organizations,
countries or individuals come together informally to develop a common approach.
Look at the emergence of the G-20 in the fi nancial crisis, the six-party talks for the
DPRK, or 6+1 on Iran. And there are many more examples. Th ese are no longer “con-
ferences” or traditional bilateral diplomacy but are coalitions that form usually among
the like-minded for a limited purpose and period. Th e Congress of Vienna seems to
be a forerunner of this modern model, whether to contain France or put in place a
“system” for addressing future issues. I can understand the common view that the
Congress of Vienna was the model for how nation-states would conduct “modern”
diplomacy. I’m sure this book will become a required read at the State Department’s
Foreign Service Institute, whether in our classes in negotiations or on leadership.’
—James Warlick, former US Ambassador to Bulgaria
‘Mastering all the relevant primary sources as well as the secondary literature,
encompassing all the latest research and analyses of international historians as well
as the theories of international relations specialists, Mark Jarrett illuminates a vital
two decades in European history that have long been neglected. His is indeed a won-
derful book—clearly written, extremely well-researched, open to a whole variety of
explanations from historians and political scientists, well balanced, fair in its judge-
ments of historical characters and contemporary academic opinion, and seminal in
its allusions to present-day events. I have little doubt that this book will become the
standard work on the Congress System.’
—Alan Sked, Professor of International History, London School of Economics
and Political Science, from the Foreword to this book
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THE CONGRESS OF
VIENNA AND ITS
LEGACY
War and Great Power Diplomacy after Napoleon
Mark Jarrett
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Published in 2013 by I.B.Tauris & Co. Ltd
6 Salem Road, London W2 4BU
175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010
www.ibtauris.com
Distributed in the United States and Canada Exclusively by Palgrave Macmillan
175 Fifth Avenue, New York NY 10010
Copyright © 2013 Mark Jarrett
Th e right of Mark Jarrett to be identifi ed as the author of this work has been asserted by the author
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in a review, this book, or any part thereof, may not
be reproduced, stored in or introduced into a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher.
ISBN: 978 1 78076 116 9
A full CIP record for this book is available from the British Library
A full CIP record is available from the Library of Congress
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: available
Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY
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CONTENTS
List of Plates vii
List of Maps ix
Foreword by Alan Sked xi
Preface xiii
Acknowledgements xv
PART ONE: WAR
1 Th e European State System and the Napoleonic Wars 3
Th e European state system of the eighteenth century 3
Th e challenge of the French Revolution 19
Th e rise of Napoleon 25
Th e birth of the Napoleonic Empire and the War of the
Th ird Coalition 27
Th e Napoleonic Empire at its height 31
Th e plans of Czartoryski and Pitt for the reconstruction of Europe 35
2 Th e Collapse of the Napoleonic Empire, 1812–14 43
Napoleon’s invasion of Russia and the Fourth Coalition 43
Castlereagh’s mission to the Continent 50
Th e negotiations at Châtillon 54
Th e Treaty of Chaumont 56
Th e Bourbon restoration 58
Th e fi rst Peace of Paris 63
PART TWO: PEACE
3 Th e Congress of Vienna, 1814–15 69
Th e decision to convene a Congress 69
Preliminary negotiations in Paris and London 70
Th e characters of the statesmen 72
Diplomatic aims on the eve of the Congress 84
Th e procedural question 89
Th e social life of the Congress 94
Th e Polish Question and Alexander’s diplomatic triumph 96
v
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The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy
Th e Saxon Question and the secret treaty of 3 January 1815 111
Other questions at the Congress 131
Th e question of a general guarantee 146
Assessments of the settlement 149
4 Th e Birth of the Congress System, 1815–18 158
Th e Hundred Days 158
Th e second Peace of Paris and the Quadruple Alliance 164
Th e Holy Alliance 173
Th e allied occupation of France 178
Th e Congress of Aix-la-Chapelle 180
PART THREE: DIPLOMACY
5 Th e Alliance in Operation, 1819–20 209
Central Europe and the Carlsbad Decrees 209
Peterloo and the Six Acts 220
Th e revolution in Spain and Castlereagh’s State Paper of 5 May 1820 223
Th e Neapolitan Revolution and Metternich’s dilemma 231
6 Rift and Reunion, 1820–22 248
Th e Congress of Troppau and the Principles of Intervention 248
Th e Congress of Laibach and the Piedmontese insurrection 270
Th e Greek Revolution, the Hanover interview and the
threat of a Russo-Turkish war 285
7 Th e Twilight of the Congress System, 1822–23 309
Th e Congress of Verona 309
Th e French expedition to Spain 338
Th e end of the Congress System 344
8 Th e Legacy of the Congress System: Success or Failure? 353
Salient characteristics of the Congress System 357
A post-hegemonic international security regime? 360
Why the system failed 363
Th e legacy of the Congress System 369
Chronology 380
Dramatis Personae 384
Notes 390
Select Bibliography 498
Index 515
vi
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LIST OF PLATES
1a Napoleon in 1812 (by Jacques Louis David). National Gallery,
Washington DC
1b Th e Battle of Leipzig, also known as the ‘Battle of the Nations’, in
October 1813. Pushkin Museum (public domain)
2a Th e Allied Sovereigns entering Paris on 30 March 1814. Author’s
Collection
2b View of Vienna from the Belvedere Palace, 1820. Wien Museum
3a Equestrian portrait of Tsar Alexander I of Russia in 1812 (by Franz
Alkruger). Hermitage Museum (public domain)
3b Prince Metternich in 1815 (by Sir Th omas Lawrence). Th e Royal
Collection/Bridgeman Art Library
4a Viscount Castlereagh in 1810 (by Sir Th omas Lawrence). National
Portrait Gallery
4b Prince de Talleyrand in 1809 (by François Gerard). Gianni Dagli Orti/
Th e Art Archive at Art Resource, NY
5a Prince Adam Jerzy Czartoryski, the Polish prince who advised Tsar
Alexander I
5b Friedrich von Gentz, the ‘Secretary’ of the Congresses
5c Th e leading statesmen of the Congress of Vienna, as depicted by the
French painter Jean-Baptiste Isabey. De Agostini Picture Library/A.
Dagli Orti/Bridgeman Art Library
6a Map showing the central district of Vienna in 1814. Wien Museum
6b Room in the Austrian State Chancellery where conferences were
frequently held during the Congress of Vienna. Erich Lessing/Art
Resource, NY
7a Military festival at the Prater on 18 October 1814, commemorating
the victory at Leipzig one year earlier (by Balthasar Wigand). Wien
Museum
7b A masked ball in the Hofburg Redoutensaal during the Congress of
Vienna (by Joseph Schütz). Wien Museum
8a Jousting at the ‘Grand Carousel’ in the Spanish Riding School on
23 November 1814 (by Carl Beyer). Wien Museum
vii
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The Congress of Vienna and its Legacy
8b ‘La Balance Politique’, a political caricature of the Congress of Vienna.
Deutsches Historisches Museum, Berlin, Germany/© DHM/Th e
Bridgeman Art Library
9a Louis XVIII and the French royal family. National Portrait Gallery.
9b Th e Duke of Wellington in 1814 (by Sir Th omas Lawrence). Apsley
House/English Heritage Photo Library
10a Th e Battle of Waterloo on 18 June 1815 (by William Sadler)
10b Prince Karl August von Hardenberg, Chancellor of Prussia (by Johann
Tischbein) bpk, Berlin/Art Resource, NY
11a German students march at the Wartburg Festival, 1817
11b Th e assassination of Kotzebue by Karl Sand in 1819 (by A.P. Eisen)
12a Contemporary view of the Peterloo Massacre on 16 August 1819
(by Richard Carlile). Manchester Library Services (public domain)
12b Portrait of Ferdinand VII of Spain in 1814 (by Goya), Museo del Prado,
Madrid. Erich Lessing/Art Resource, NY
13a Count John Capodistrias, Corfi ote adviser to Tsar Alexander I and the
fi rst President of Greece. National Historical Museum, Athens (public
domain)
13b Colonel Rafael del Riego, hero of the Spanish Revolution of 1820
13c Ferdinand IV of Naples (Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies) reigned for
66 years but enjoyed hunting more than governing. Museo Nazion-
ale di Capodimonte, Naples/Alinari/Art Resource, NY (by Gennaro
Maldarelli)
14a General Guglielmo Pepe helped to plan the Neapolitan Revolution of
1820. Archive Dr. Agazio Mellace
14b Sultan Mahmud II (by John Young)
14c Th e trial of Queen Caroline in 1820 (by Sir George Hayter). National
Portrait Gallery
15a Laibach in the early nineteenth century (by Leander Russ). Albertina,
Vienna (public domain)
15b Th e massacre of Greek Christians in Constantinople in 1821, showing
the Patriarch hanging from the church door. Athens Gennadios Library
(public domain)
16a George Canning in 1825 (by Richard Evans). National Portrait Gallery
16b A political caricature of the Congress of Verona, 1822
viii
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LIST OF MAPS
Europe on the Eve of the French Revolution, 1789 xvii
Europe at the Height of the Napoleonic Empire, 1812 xviii–xix
Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 xx–xxi
Europe of the Congresses, 1814–24 xxii
Th e Partitions of Poland 7
Th e Frontiers of France, 1814–15 51
Th e ‘Polish-Saxon’ Question 97
Spain at the Time of the Revolution of 1820 226
Italy in the 1820s 232
Th e Danubian Principalities and Greece in the 1820s 286
ix
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To my parents, Beverly and Paul, for their love and patience.
To my children, Alexander and Julia, for the joy they have given me.
To the memory of those of my teachers who did not live to see this
publication: Gordon A. Craig, Alexander L. George, Kenneth Bourne,
Marc Raeff , J.M.W. Bean, Matthew S. Anderson and John Dinwiddy.
And fi nally, to my wife, Małgorzata, who grew up in Puławy in the shadow of
the Czartoryski Palace, where Tsar Alexander met the Polish nobility on his
journey to the Congress of Vienna almost exactly two centuries ago.
x
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