Table Of ContentThe Changing Languages of Europe
DedicatedtoWimBlockmans
andthewonderfulpeopleofNIAS
The Changing
Languages of Europe
BERND HEINE & TANIA KUTEVA
1
3
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Foreword
Anumberofstudentsoflanguagehavepointedoutthatthewaygrammatical
meanings are expressed in a given language is strikingly similar to what is
found in some neighbouring language or languages, even though the forms
usedintheseexpressionsareentirelydiVerent,andinspiteofthefactthatthe
languages concerned may be genetically only remotely related or even unre-
lated.Themaingoalofthisbookis,Wrst,toshowthatsuchobservationsare
far from being coincidental; rather, that such cross-linguistic similarities are
more common than is widely believed. Second, we will argue that there is a
principledwaytoaccountforsuchsimilaritiesand,third,thatthesesimilar-
ities are the result of processes of conceptualization that are the same across
cultures.
The present book focuses on grammatical change in Europe. It has ben-
eWted greatly from discussions with and comments and data from many
colleagues, in particular the following: Sasha Aikhenvald, Walter Bisang,
Peter Blumenthal, Natalia Bugay, Irma Canovic, Michela Chennamo, Hilary
Chappell, Ulrike Claudi, Bernard Comrie, Eva Csato´, O¨sten Dahl, Andrii
Danylenko, Ulrich Detges, Bob Dixon, Bridget Drinka, Carola Emkow,
Zygmunt Frajzyngier, Victor Friedman, Jost Gippert, John Haiman, Martin
Haspelmath, Daniel Jacob, Lars Johanson, Christa Kilian-Hatz, Christa
Ko¨nig, Yaron Matras, Luca Melchior, Maj-Britt Mosgaard-Hansen, Salikoko
Mufwene, Ulrich Obst, Lukas Pietsch, Karl-Heinz Ro¨ntgen, Suzanne
Romaine, Peter Siemund, Thomas Stolz, Elvira Veselinovic´, Nigel Vincent,
Julija Vuckovski, Andreas Wesch, Debra Ziegeler, as well as many others.
Special thanks are also due to Monika Feinen, for her invaluable technical
assistance. Finally, we express our deep gratitude to Meike PfaV, Barbara
Sevenich, and Stefanie Lorkowski for having assisted us in ways that go far
beyondtechnicaldetails,andforalltheworktheydidonanearlierversionof
thisvolume.
We are also deeply indebted to the Center for Advanced Study in the
BehavioralSciences,Stanford,andtheInstituteforAdvancedStudy,LaTrobe
University, and in particular the Research Centre for Linguistic Typology in
Melbourne and its directors Bob Dixon and Sasha Aikhenvald, who oVered
the Wrst-named author hospitality to work on this book; the second-named
author thanks the Max Planck Gesellschaft for providing Wnancial support
and in particular to Bernard Comrie, the director of the Linguistics
vi Foreword
Department of the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology,
Leipzig, for oVering a most stimulating atmosphere for the Wnalizing stage
of the book. We are grateful to these institutions for their generosity and
understanding.OurgratitudealsoextendstoourcolleaguesLenoreGrenoble
andLindsayWhaley,DartmouthCollegewhooVeredtheWrst-namedauthor
academichospitalityandthemeanstoworkonthisbookwhenhewasinvited
as avisiting professorfromMarch toJune2002. Ourfinal thanksaredueto
the Netherlands Institute for Advanced Study (NIAS) and its rector Wim
Blockmansfortheoutstandinghospitalitywewereabletoenjoyin2005–6at
thefinalizingstageofthebook.
Contents
Foreword v
ListofTables xi
ListofMaps xiii
ListofFigures xiv
Abbreviations xv
1 EuropeasaLinguisticArea 1
1.1 Europe’slinguisticdiversity 1
1.2 Major themesofresearch 2
1.2.1 DelimitingEuropeasalinguisticarea 4
1.2.2 SearchingforEurope’scentre 7
1.2.3 Thesearchfor‘Euroversals’ 10
1.2.4 Themotivatingforcesofarealrelationship 14
1.2.5 ArealgroupingswithinEurope 18
1.2.6 Onmapping 22
1.2.7 Haspelmath(2001) 23
1.3 Discussion 27
1.4 Acasestudy:fromperfecttopasttimereference 36
1.4.1 Thearealdimension 36
1.4.2 Historicalevidence 40
1.4.3 Discussion 42
1.5 Theoreticalbackground 42
1.6 Conclusions 44
2 GrammaticalReplication 48
2.1 Introduction 49
2.2 Grammaticalusepatterns 50
2.2.1 Fromminor tomajorusepattern 51
2.2.2 Theroleofusepatternsinlanguagecontact 55
2.2.3 Usepatternsandcode-switching 56
2.3 Grammaticalizationandgrammaticalreplication 57
2.3.1 Extension 58
2.3.2 Desemanticization 60
viii Contents
2.3.3 Decategorialization 61
2.3.4 Erosion 62
2.3.5 Replicavs.ordinarygrammaticalization 63
2.3.6 Conclusions 63
2.4 Restructuringvs.contact-inducedgrammaticalization 64
2.5 Onthenatureofreplication 68
2.6 Internalvs.externalchange 73
2.7 Acasestudy 79
2.7.1 ‘Threaten’constructions 80
2.7.2 Discussion 92
2.8 Conclusions 95
3 TheRiseofArticles 97
3.1 Introduction 97
3.2 Evolution 99
3.2.1 DeWnitearticles 100
3.2.2 IndeWnitearticles 104
3.3 Contact-inducedgrammaticalizationofarticles 106
3.3.1 Introduction 106
3.3.2 DeWnitearticles 111
3.3.3 IndeWnitearticles 119
3.4 Thearealdimension:ContinentalScandinavian 134
3.5 Conclusions 136
4 TheRiseofPossessivePerfects 140
4.1 Introduction 141
4.2 Dynamictypology 143
4.2.1 Morphosyntax 143
4.2.2 Meaning 146
4.2.3 Conclusion 150
4.3 Notesonhistory 152
4.3.1 Hypotheses 152
4.3.2 Latinandlater 153
4.4 Theperiphery 157
4.4.1 Slaviclanguages 157
4.4.2 Celticlanguages 172
4.4.3 IrishEnglish(Hiberno-English) 175
4.4.4 GermanintheUSAandAustralia 178
Contents ix
4.4.5 Otherperipherallanguages 179
4.5 Conclusions 180
5 FromComitativetoInstrumentalForms 183
5.1 Typology 183
5.2 Notesonhistory 186
5.3 Peripherallanguages 188
5.4 Thegrowthofpolysemy 198
5.5 Evidencefordirectionality 199
5.6 Evidenceforcontact 201
5.7 Conclusions 202
6 FromQuestiontoSubordination 204
6.1 Theriseofcomplement,adverbial,andrelativeclauses 204
6.2 Afour-stagescenarioofgrammaticalization 208
6.2.1 Asurvey 211
6.2.2 AgrammaticalizationareaontheBalkans 216
6.3 Notesonhistory 218
6.4 Discussion 226
6.4.1 Evidencefordirectionality 226
6.4.2 Evidenceforcontact 228
6.4.3 Onthetransitionfrominterrogativeto
subordinationmarking 229
6.5 Casemarking:theriseofstandardmarkersinequative
andsimilativeconstructions 236
6.5.1 Ontheconceptualsourceofthestandardmarker 238
6.5.2 Arealpatterning 240
6.6 Conclusions 242
7 Europe’sPeriphery 244
7.1 Introduction 244
7.2 TowardsaEuropeantypologicalproWle 245
7.2.1 Basque 245
7.2.2 SlavicminoritiesincentralEurope 253
7.2.3 Pipil 257
7.2.4 Discussion 263
7.3 Towardsanon-EuropeantypologicalproWle 265
7.3.1 Introduction 265
7.3.2 Singlish 269
