Table Of ContentUnited Nations University Series on Regionalism 17
Madeleine O. Hosli
Joren Selleslaghs E ditors
The
Changing
Global Order
Challenges and Prospects
United Nations University Series on Regionalism
Volume 17
Series Editors
Philippe De Lombaerde, NEOMA Business School, Rouen (France) and UNU-CRIS,
Brugge, Belgium
Luk Van Langenhove, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussels, Belgium
UNU-CRIS, Bruges, Belgium
Glenn Rayp, Ghent University, Bruges, Belgium
Madeleine O. Hosli, Leiden University, The Hague, The Netherlands
International Editorial Board members include
Louise Fawcett, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
Sieglinde Gstöhl, College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium
Henryk Kierzkowski, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies,
Geneva, Switzerland
Fukunari Kimura, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
Edward D. Mansfield, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
T. Ademola Oyejide, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria
Jacques Pelkmans, College of Europe, Bruges, Belgium
Joaquin Roy, University of Miami, Miami, FL, USA
Ramón Torrent, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
The United Nations University Series on Regionalism, launched by UNU-CRIS and
Springer, offers a platform for innovative work on (supra-national) regionalism
from a global and inter-disciplinary perspective. It includes the World Reports on
Regional Integration, published in collaboration with other UN agencies, but it is
also open for theoretical, methodological and empirical contributions from
academics and policy-makers worldwide.
Book proposals will be reviewed by an International Editorial Board.
The series editors are particularly interested in book proposals dealing with:
– comparative regionalism;
– comparative work on regional organizations;
– inter-regionalism;
– the role of regions in a multi-level governance context;
– the interactions between the UN and the regions;
– the regional dimensions of the reform processes of multilateral institutions;
– the dynamics of cross-border micro-regions and their interactions with supra-
national regions;
– methodological issues in regionalism studies.
Accepted book proposals can receive editorial support from UNU-CRIS for the
preparation of manuscripts.
Please send book proposals to: [email protected] and lvanlangenhove@
cris.unu.edu.
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/7716
Madeleine O. Hosli • Joren Selleslaghs
Editors
The Changing Global Order
Challenges and Prospects
Editors
Madeleine O. Hosli Joren Selleslaghs
Institute of Security and Global Affairs Faculty of Governance and Global Affairs
Leiden University Leiden University
The Hague, The Netherlands The Hague, The Netherlands
ISSN 2214-9848 ISSN 2214-9856 (electronic)
United Nations University Series on Regionalism
ISBN 978-3-030-21602-3 ISBN 978-3-030-21603-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-21603-0
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Preface
This edited volume explicitly targets the following questions: How are international
relations (IR) changing? How can global peace and stability be maintained? In so
doing, the volume addresses important contemporary issues of international affairs,
conflict, peace and security by bringing together a range of prominent experts from
different, but related, academic disciplines to share their perspectives on the topic at
hand. The volume also addresses additional related aspects of IR, such as knowledge
based on international law, the operation of international and regional organisations
and emerging players in today’s changing global order. The multidisciplinary
approach provides the essential knowledge for students and scholars of IR and
international studies, in general, to analyse current events and problems from a wide
range of perspectives. This volume also presents its readers with a solid theoretical
foundation to examine and better understand global political events. As such, the
book aims to provide insights into several important themes and theories of
international relations and an understanding of how the global order is gradually
changing and how regional and international organisations contribute to the mainte-
nance of international peace and security in today’s multipolar world.
The first part provides a state-of-the-art overview of theories of international
relations. To this end, Chap. 1, written by D. de Buck and M.O. Hosli, introduces
the reader to the key concepts and general academic discipline of IR. It addresses,
in detail, the traditional or mainstream IR theories, namely, realism, liberalism and
constructivism. The mainstream theories aim to explain how the world is in reality
rather than how it ideally should be. The origins of IR theory aimed to answer
questions related to the conditions of peace and warfare as follows: Why and when
do nations go to war? What are the underlying motives of warfare? When are
peaceful relations most likely? These questions were particularly prominent in the
twentieth century following the devastating global impacts of two world wars.
Although still central to the discipline today, the causes of peace and warfare are not
the only subjects addressed. IR scholars are equally interested in the emergence and
role of international organisations. They investigate the impact institutions have on
existing power structures and whether they constrain the behaviour of the most
powerful players. Other questions focus on how and when states cooperate and the
v
vi Preface
factors that contribute to hostile or peaceful relations. Regardless of the topic
investigated, the crucial tools in understanding global problems, order and relations
are theoretical frameworks. Therefore, this chapter pays close attention to the
integral elements pertaining to theoretical frameworks in IR. It provides students
with a sound theoretical base to further comprehend and analyse current events,
conflicts and changing global orders. The first section of the chapter reveals what
the mainstream theories of international relations are and how they vary from
alternative approaches in the field. The second section analyses the three above-
mentioned theories by identifying their key components and contrasts how the
theories diverge from one another. The chapter concludes with a brief comparison
of the three theories with regard to how they explain, and what factors they attribute,
to changes in the global order. At the end of the chapter, the reader is left well
equipped with a solid understanding of the theoretical world of IR.
In Chap. 2, I. Baruah and J. Selleslaghs provide an overview of alternative
postpositivist theories of IR and the need for a global IR scholarship. It addresses
various key elements, including the notion of positivism as well as that of
postpositivism. There is often a misunderstanding in the scientific tradition that
somehow positivism and postpositivism are contradictory to one another, and there
is a perpetual war between the two perspectives. According to some scholars, IR is
a justifiably divided discipline which is currently split between a positivist
mainstream camp on the one hand and a postpositivist camp on the other hand.
Consequently, in the recent past, there occurred a theoretical upheaval as positivism,
the foundational epistemology of the mainstream schools of IR thinking (realism
and liberalism), was criticised by other emerging theories. These include post-
modernism, normative theory, feminism, critical theory, constructivism and green
theory. It is also noteworthy that the only key unifying element amidst the latter
theories is their mutual critique towards core positivist assumptions. This chapter
addresses the key elements of each camp, the shift towards postpositivist approaches,
and maintains that IR can benefit from both positivism and postpositivism.
Ultimately, the (need for a) move towards a global IR scholarship is discussed by
providing a critical overview of the most important scholars’ positions on this
(including B. Buzan, A. Achaya, Z. Capan, V. Morozov and Y. Qin).
In part two, attention turns to the rise of ‘New Powers’ in the changing global
order. It starts with a chapter on Power Politics by R. De Wijk who claims that the
notion of power is central to the politics among nations in the twenty-first century.
Essentially, this chapter presents a historical narrative of the exercise of power
politics, by states great and small alike. It highlights the fundamentals of power in
politics, how states exercise it and on what grounds. Power is essentially the ability
to get others to do what one wants. This can be done either in a positive way through
encouragement (incentives) or in a negative way through force (coercion). This
study also describes states’ instruments for exercising power in foreign policy, i.e.
economic sanctions, and the use of military power. It has been established that the
power of modern states is dependent upon the three factors or variables: wealth,
innovation and conventional military capabilities. In addition to an evaluation of
how great powers exercise state power, the chapter also examines how highly
Preface vii
developed medium-sized industrialised democracies, such as the Netherlands, the
Scandinavian countries and Canada exercise power. Furthermore, it highlights the
shift of global power towards Asia and away from the Western world. The discussion
about the relative decline in American power and the emergence of a multipolar
world is an important one. The conclusion is that due to the rising powers and the
development of multiple centres of power, international relations is becoming not
only less ‘Western’ but also more complex. The chapter answers questions such as
the following: Does a state need a large economy to influence world politics? Is a
powerful military necessary to be a key player on the global stage? What impact do
powerful players have on the world order? The chapter additionally illustrates how
emerging powers often have to compete with existing, mainly Western, powers over
economic and geopolitical interests and the consequences this has on patterns of
international cooperation.
In Chap. 4, J. Shi and Z. Langjia shed further light on the rise of China, as China’s
ascent is undoubtedly one of the prominent topics in IR today. However, the nature
of China’s rise has been controversial. This chapter explores China’s rise mainly
from its strategic view of the global order, the strategic intention at both regional
and global levels, focusing on major powers (like the United States, Russia, India,
Japan) and its narrative of peaceful rising. It examines in detail the Chinese global
order and world view. The chapter also describes Confucianism and Chinese
practice and further examines it from IR theory and Chinese actions in IR in the
contemporary era. It also investigates whether the Chinese narrative of its peaceful
rise to power reflects the behaviour and actions taken by the state on the global
stage. This chapter highlights China’s Asia-Pacific strategic intentions and also that
of the East Asian region. From the 1990s, China had the intention of transforming
its economic power into political and military power. It focused on economic
development and neglected political participation in international issues, but now
it is becoming increasingly assertive. The authors argue that China advocates a
multipolar world order and combats unipolar or bipolar hegemonism, which is very
much conducive to its rise and strategic interests. Additionally, they discuss the
relations between China and the United States in detail. Evidently, the global order
is changing, or shifting, as great changes are taking place in Asia and China’s
strategic focus is on the Asia-Pacific and neighbouring regions. This chapter
concludes by stating that while China’s economic growth has bestowed on it a
greater confidence and an opportunity to engage in international affairs, its levels of
international responsibility, political participation and global leadership still do not
reflect its economic status. This prevents China from achieving full international
legitimacy and becoming a regional (or global) hegemon.
In Chap. 5, A. Gerrits discusses, in detail, the Russian Federation’s foreign and
political interactions within the changing global context. He focuses on two related
aspects of Russia’s foreign policies: multipolarity and multilateralism. This chapter
also discusses the concept of revisionism and its relevance vis-a-vis Russia. It
addresses interesting questions such as the following: Is Russia a revisionist power?
If so, what does Russia aim to revise? What does it want to keep constant? The
author also outlines the role of the President in Russian politics and gives a detailed
viii Preface
account of Putin’s political activities, domestic, rule and foreign relations. Gerrits
argues that Russia is as much a re-emerging or ‘recovering’ power, as it is an
emerging one. In addition, Russia is a great power not only by virtue of its size,
nuclear arsenal and energy resources, but also because it is the successor state to the
superpower Soviet Union. Furthermore, Russia inherited its most prestigious
symbol of great power status, its permanent seat in the UN Security Council, from
its predecessor. The focus is on Eurasianism, which has deeply penetrated official
discourse in Russia and serves as an ideological driver for strengthening Russian
influence in the Eurasian region (the former Soviet space) and for policy initiatives
as the Eurasian Union, a fundamental component of Putin’s foreign policy strategy.
Gerrits argues that multipolarity is Russia’s answer to the post-Cold War global
dominance of the United States and its tendency towards unilateralism, which
Russia considers as a danger to global peace and as a threat to its national security.
If Russia can be considered as an emerging power at all, it is not for its economy but
for its political potential. And it is also for political reasons that the Russian
leadership values its affiliation with the BRICS group, which provides Russia with
a platform to present its ideas and ambitions about global reform. This chapter also
discusses Russia’s relations and foreign policy vis-a-vis the United States and the
EU. The partnership with China in various international and regional institutions is
also described. Russia aspires to create a strong, dynamic regional order under its
own leadership, as a building block towards the global multipolar order it envisions.
In Chap. 6, C. van de Wetering proposes some innovative ideas for understanding
India’s ‘rise’ on the global stage. Contemporary political narratives seek to portray
India as an emerging power in the international system. This is firstly because the
Indian economy is one of the fastest-growing ones in the world. New Delhi’s
military power is also significant, as India boasts one of the largest armies globally,
and is one of the biggest markets for imported weapons and defence-related
equipment. Furthermore, the BRICs grouping is gaining renewed attention owing to
the economic growth potential of its members. This chapter addresses the question
as to how India came to be understood as an emerging power during the last two
decades. The representation of India’s emergence assumes that India is experiencing
large economic growth, is expanding its military and is taking on a larger role in the
world. These assumptions are based on realist theory which argues that India’s rapid
economic growth will help it to become a great power on the grounds that ‘wealth
and military power go hand in hand’. Drawing on the theories in the first chapter,
Chap. 6 makes use of a social constructivist approach. First, it goes through some
recent political and economic developments in India. It asks whether these ‘facts’
can be viewed in different ways. It then asks how one interpretation can gain more
prominence. This shows that the discussion of India’s emergence is part of a larger
debate on the rising Asia and declining United States. What is less well articulated
in common discourse is that India’s economy could also be portrayed as not very
strong, that it is still confronted with poverty and other social deficiencies and that
it also experienced large economic growth in the past. The chapter also illustrates
the internal dynamics of India’s shortfalls, such as illiteracy, corruption, lack of
adequate infrastructure, etc.
Preface ix
To end the part, F. Lala elaborates Africa’s position in the changing global order
by analysing African agency and its role played in multilateral negotiations. The
post-Cold War era of multipolarity and shifts in global governance have opened
doors for emerging powers, and Africa is one of them. The rise of nations from the
global South, especially China, opened new avenues for the African continent and
increased its role in global politics. The author starts by looking at African agency
in international relations discourse, with a focus on the birth and rise of the African
Union (AU) as the continent’s prime intergovernmental institution. It illustrates how
the AU has come to be a voice for Africa and its ability to exercise agency interna-
tionally in such cases as UN system reform, the African Common Position on
Climate Change, the AU-EU partnership and the Doha Development Agenda. It also
looks at the rise of South Africa as the regional hegemon and continental giant. The
author concludes by claiming that African agency is an incontrovertible fact and its
significance is increasing gradually.
Whereas part two of the book critically analyses the role of nations and nation-
states in contemporary international relations, part three focuses on regional organ-
isations in global affairs. The part begins with a chapter on ‘The Rise of Regions:
Introduction to Regional Integration and Organisations’ by J. Selleslaghs and L. Van
Langenhove. Regionalism has gained considerable strategic clout in the twenty-first
century, not only as a form of economic, political and social organisation but also as
a field of study. The debate on the rise of regionalism shows we need to adopt a clear
understanding of what we mean by regionalism and how we measure it. More than
40 years ago, Joseph Nye complained that ‘integration theorists have talked past
each other’ using different concepts and measurements. His criticism still holds
today – there is a Babylonian variety of definitions and analytical frameworks, and
only a few scholars of regionalism have engaged in a systemic comparison of differ-
ent forms around the globe. In some ways, research on old regionalism was more
comparative than many studies of new regionalism. Yet, it is only with the turn of
the millennium that solid comparative studies have been undertaken in this particu-
lar subfield of international relations/international political economy. There are
many ‘roads to regionalism’, and not all of them lead to new forms of regionalism.
Regions outside Europe leave much to be explored with regard to why states build,
develop, join and leave regional organisations and standard international relations
theories are still yet to develop ways of explaining the (final) outcome/outlook of
regionalisms’ different manifestations. These issues are central to this chapter,
which is organised in three parts. Part I, The field of regionalism, regional coopera-
tion and regional integration in international relations, focuses on the theoretical
understanding of ‘the rise of regions’ and the importance of regional integration
systems for the changing global order. In contrast, Part II, Classification of regional-
ism and regional organisations, adopts a more practical approach by providing clear
categories and indicators of regionalism worldwide. Finally, Part III, Studying
regionalism and regional integration through standard IR lenses and related research
challenges, provides valuable insights and understandings on researching regional-
ist tendencies in a changing global order.
