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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
volume 6
TheModernBiologicalandEarthSciences
ThisvolumeinthehighlyrespectedCambridgeHistoryofScienceisdevoted
tothehistoryofthelifeandearthsciencessince1800.Itprovidescomprehen-
siveandauthoritativesurveysofhistoricalthinkingonmajordevelopments
in these areas of science, on the social and cultural milieus in which the
knowledge was generated, and on the wider impact of the major theoreti-
cal and practical innovations. The chapters were written by acknowledged
expertswhoprovideconciseaccountsofthelatesthistoricalthinkingcoupled
withguidestothemostimportantrecentliterature.Inadditiontohistories
oftraditionalsciences,thevolumecoverstheemergenceofnewerdisciplines
suchasgenetics,biochemistry,andgeophysics.Theinteractionofscientific
techniques with their practical applications in areas such as medicine is a
major focus of the book, as is its coverage of controversial areas such as
scienceandreligionaswellasenvironmentalism.
Peter J. Bowler isProfessor of the History of Science atQueen’s University
inBelfast.HewaspresidentoftheBritishSocietyfortheHistoryofScience
from2004to2006andisamemberoftheRoyalIrishAcademyandaFellow
oftheBritishAcademyandtheAmericanAssociationfortheAdvancement
ofScience.Heistheauthorofnumerousbooks,includingCharlesDarwin:
TheManandHisInfluence,publishedbyCambridgein1996.
JohnV.PickstoneisWellcomeResearchProfessoratManchesterUniversity,
where he founded the Centre for the History of Science, Technology and
Medicineanddirectedituntil2002.Hehaspublishednumerousbooksand
articles,includingNewWaysofKnowing:ANewHistoryofScience,Technology
andMedicine(2000)andSurgeons,ManufacturersandPatients:ATransatlantic
HistoryoftheTotalHipReplacement(2007),coauthoredwithJulieAnderson
andFrancisNeary.
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THE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF SCIENCE
Generaleditors
DavidC.LindbergandRonaldL.Numbers
volume 1: AncientScience
EditedbyAlexanderJonesandLibaChaiaTaub
volume 2: MedievalScience
EditedbyDavidC.LindbergandMichaelH.Shank
volume 3: EarlyModernScience
EditedbyKatharineParkandLorraineDaston
volume 4: Eighteenth-CenturyScience
EditedbyRoyPorter
volume 5: TheModernPhysicalandMathematicalSciences
EditedbyMaryJoNye
volume 6: TheModernBiologicalandEarthSciences
EditedbyPeterJ.BowlerandJohnV.Pickstone
volume 7: TheModernSocialSciences
EditedbyTheodoreM.PorterandDorothyRoss
volume 8: ModernScienceinNationalandInternationalContext
EditedbyDavidN.LivingstoneandRonaldL.Numbers
DavidC.LindbergisHilldaleProfessorEmeritusoftheHistoryofScienceand
pastdirectoroftheInstituteforResearchintheHumanitiesattheUniversityof
Wisconsin–Madison.Hehaswrittenoreditedadozenbooksontopicsinthe
historyofmedievalandearlymodernscience,includingTheBeginningsofWest-
ernScience(1992).HeandRonaldL.NumbershavepreviouslycoeditedGod
andNature:HistoricalEssaysontheEncounterbetweenChristianityandScience
(1986)andWhenScienceandChristianityMeet(2003).AFellowoftheAmeri-
canAcademyofArtsandSciences,hehasbeenarecipientoftheSartonMedal
oftheHistoryofScienceSociety,ofwhichheisalsopastpresident(1994–5).
RonaldL.NumbersisHilldaleProfessoroftheHistoryofScienceandMedicine
at the University of Wisconsin–Madison, where he has taught since 1974.
A specialist in the history of science and medicine in the United States, he
haswrittenoreditedmorethantwodozenbooks,includingTheCreationists
(1992,2006),ScienceandChristianityinPulpitandPew(2007),andtheforth-
coming Science and the Americans. A Fellow of the American Academy of
Arts and Sciences and a former editor of Isis, the flagship journal of the
history of science, he has served as the president of the American Society
of Church History (1999–2000), the History of Science Society (2000–1),
and the International Union of History and Philosophy of Science/Division
ofHistoryofScienceandTechnology(2005–9).
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THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF
SCIENCE
volume 6
The Modern Biological and Earth Sciences
Editedby
PETER J. BOWLER
JOHN V. PICKSTONE
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
v
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cambridgeuniversitypress
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andtotheprovisionsofrelevantcollectivelicensingagreements,
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Firstpublished2009
PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica
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(Revisedforvolume6)
TheCambridgehistoryofscience
p. cm.
Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindexes.
Contents:–v.3.Earlymodernscience/editedbyKatharineParkandLorraineDaston
v.4.Eighteenth-centuryscience/editedbyRoyPorter
v.5.Themodernphysicalandmathematicalsciences/editedbyMaryJoNye
v.6.Themodernbiologicalandearthsciences/editedbyPeterJ.Bowler
andJohnV.Pickstone
v.7.Themodernsocialsciences/editedbyTheodoreH.PorterandDorothyRoss
1.Science–History. I.Lindberg,DavidC. II.Numbers,RonaldL.
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CONTENTS
ListofIllustrations page xv
NotesonContributors xvii
GeneralEditors’Preface xxv
1 Introduction 1
peter j. bowler and john v. pickstone
PART I. WORKERS AND PLACES
2 AmateursandProfessionals 15
david e. allen
ThePreprofessionalEra 15
CategorizingtheAmateurs 18
TheCultureofCollecting 21
Academicization 23
AttemptedAdaptations 27
InternalSalvation 30
Convergence 32
3 DiscoveryandExploration 34
roy macleod
LinkingUniverses 36
ScienceandtheExpansionofEurope 39
UniversalKnowledge:Humboldt’sCosmos 43
ScienceandNationalGlory 45
ScienceandInternationalism 52
LookingAhead 57
vii
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viii Contents
4 Museums 60
mary p. winsor
Museumsto1792 61
TheParisModel,1793–1809 62
ImpactoftheParisModel,1810–1859 64
TheMuseumMovement,1860–1901 67
DioramasandDiversity,1902–1990 73
5 FieldStationsandSurveys 76
keith r. benson
SurveysinNature 78
FieldStations 84
6 Universities 90
jonathan harwood
AMapoftheChangingTerrain 91
ThePowerofPatrons 95
TheConsequencesofInstitutionalLocation 102
Conclusion 106
7 GeologicalIndustries 108
paul lucier
MiningSchools 109
GovernmentSurveys 111
PrivateSurveys 118
IndustrialScience 120
GeologyandIndustry 123
8 ThePharmaceuticalIndustries 126
john p. swann
InfluencefromAlkaloidsandtheDyestuffIndustry 127
ImpactofBiologicalMedicines 130
PoliticalandLegalElements 131
IndustryversusProfessionalPharmacy 132
WarasaCatalysttoIndustrialDevelopment 133
IndustrialGrowthandtheRoleofResearch 136
RegulatingtheIndustry 137
ConsolidatingtheIndustry 139
9 PublicandEnvironmentalHealth 141
michael worboys
1800–1890:TheHealthofTowns 142
1890–1950:TheHealthofNations 150
1950–2000:WorldHealth 157
Conclusion 162
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Contents ix
PART II. ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTATION
10 Geology 167
mott t. greene
Stratigraphy:TheBasicActivityofGeology 171
MountainsandMovement 174
IceAgesandSecularCoolingoftheEarth 178
AgeandInternalStructureoftheEarth 179
EconomicGeology 181
GeologyintheTwentiethCentury 182
11 Paleontology 185
ronald rainger
Cuvier,Extinction,andStratigraphy 186
PaleontologyandProgress 188
PaleontologyandEvolution 190
PaleontologyandModernDarwinism 197
PaleontologyandBiogeography 200
MuseumsandPaleontology 201
12 Zoology 205
mario a. di gregorio
TheNaturalSystemandNaturalTheology 206
ThePhilosophicalNaturalists 208
TheTriumphofTypology 211
FromDarwintoEvolutionaryTypology 214
TensionswithinEvolutionism 218
IntotheTwentiethCentury 221
13 Botany 225
eugene cittadino
BeyondLinnaeus:SystematicsandPlantGeography 227
BotanicalGardens 231
The“NewBotany” 233
LinkingFieldandLaboratory,TheoryandPractice 237
14 Evolution 243
jonathan hodge
TheInfluenceofBuffonandLinnaeus 244
Lamarck:TheDirectandIndirectProductionbyNatureofAll
LivingBodies 246
AfterCuvier,Oken,andLamarck 249
Darwin:TheTreeofLifeandNaturalSelection 252
AfterDarwin 256
EvolutionaryBiologysinceMendelism 259
Conclusion:ControversiesandContexts 263
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15 Anatomy,Histology,andCytology 265
susan c. lawrence
Anatomy:HumansandAnimals 267
HumanAnatomy 268
ComparativeAnatomy 270
TissuesandCells 274
TheCellTheory 275
Histology 279
Ultrastructure 282
Conclusion 284
16 Embryology 285
nick hopwood
MakingEmbryology 287
HistoriesofDevelopment 291
EmbryosasAncestors 294
ExperimentandDescription 298
Organizers,Gradients,andFields 304
Embryos,Cells,Genes,andMolecules 308
EmbryologyandReproduction 312
17 Microbiology 316
olga amsterdamska
Speciation,Classification,andtheInfusoria 317
Wine,Life,andPolitics:Pasteur’sStudiesofFermentation 320
TheBacteriologicalRevolution 323
InstitutionalizationofBacteriology 328
BetweenProtozoologyandTropicalDiseases 331
BacteriologybetweenBotany,Chemistry,andAgriculture 333
MicrobiologybetweentheBrewingIndustryand
(Bio)chemistry 335
GeneticsofMicroorganismsandMolecularBiology 337
Conclusions 340
18 Physiology 342
richard l. kremer
FoundationalNarratives 342
NewerNarratives 351
TheDisappearanceofPhysiology? 358
19 Pathology 367
russell c. maulitz
Pathology’sPrehistory 369
FirstTransition:TissuePathology 371
SecondTransition:CellularPathology 374
ThirdTransition:ClinicalPathology 375
PopularForensicPathology 378
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