Table Of ContentTHE CAMBRIDGE HISTORY
OF CHINA
General Editors
DENIS TWITCHETT and JOHN K. FAIRBANK
Volume 13
Republican China 1912—1949, Part 2
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
THE CAMBRIDGE
HISTORY OF
CHINA
Volume 13
Republican China 1912—1949, Part 2
edited by
JOHN K. FAIRBANK
and
ALBERT FEUERWERKER
I CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
PUBLISHED BY THE PRESS SYNDICATE OF THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE
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CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
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© Cambridge University Press 1986
This book is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without
the written permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 1986
Reprinted 1990, 2002
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication data
(Revised for volume 13)
Main entry under title:
The Cambridge history of China.
Vol. 13 edited by John K. Fairbank and
Albert Feuerwerker.
Includes bibliographies and indexes.
Contents: — v. 3. Sui and Tang China,
589-906, pt 1. — v. 10. Late Ch'ing, 1800—
19u.pt. i.-v. 13. Republican China, 1912-1949.pt 2.
1. China - History. I. Twitchett, Denis Crispin.
II. Fairbank, John King, 1907- . HI. Feuerwerker, Albert
DS735.C3145 95»'°3 7<>-*9852
ISBNO 521 24338 6
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
GENERAL EDITORS' PREFACE
As the modern world grows more interconnected, historical understanding
of it becomes ever more necessary and the historian's task ever more
complex. Fact and theory affect each other even as sources proliferate and
knowledge increases. Merely to summarize what is known becomes an
awesome task, yet a factual basis of knowledge is increasingly essential for
historical thinking.
Since the beginning of the century, the Cambridge histories have set
a pattern in the English-reading world for multi-volume series containing
chapters written by specialists under the guidance of volume editors. The
Cambridge Modern History, planned by Lord Acton, appeared in sixteen
volumes between 1902 and 1912. It was followed by The Cambridge Ancient
History, The Cambridge Medieval History, The Cambridge History of English
Literature, and Cambridge Histories of India, of Poland, and of the British
Empire. The original Modern History has now been replaced by The New
Cambridge Modern History in twelve volumes, and The Cambridge Economic
History of Europe is now being completed. Other Cambridge Histories
include a history of Islam, of Arabic literature, of Iran, of Judaism, of
Africa, and of China.
In the case of China, Western historians face a special problem. The
history of Chinese civilization is more extensive and complex than that of
any single Western nation, and only slightly less ramified than the history
of European civilization as a whole. The Chinese historical record is
immensely detailed and extensive, and Chinese historical scholarship has
been highly developed and sophisticated for many centuries. Yet until recent
decades the study of China in the West, despite the important pioneer work
of European sinologists, had hardly progressed beyond the translation of
some few classical historical texts, and the outline history of the major
dynasties and their institutions.
Recently Western scholars have drawn more fully upon the rich
traditions of historical scholarship in China and also in Japan, and greatly
advanced both our detailed knowledge of past events and institutions, and
also our critical understanding of traditional historiography. In addition,
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
VI GENERAL EDITORS* PREFACE
the present generation of Western historians of China can also draw upon
the new outlooks and techniques of modern Western historical scholarship,
and upon recent developments in the social sciences, while continuing to
build upon the solid foundations of rapidly progressing European,
Japanese and Chinese sinological studies. Recent historical events, too,
have given prominence to new problems, while throwing into question
many older conceptions. Under these multiple impacts the Western
revolution in Chinese studies is steadily gathering momentum.
When The Cambridge History of China was first planned in 1966, the aim
was to provide a substantial account of the history of China as a bench
mark for the Western history-reading public: an account of the current
state of knowledge in six volumes. Since then the out-pouring of current
research, the application of new methods, and the extension of scholarship
into new fields, have further stimulated Chinese historical studies. This
growth is indicated by the fact that the History has now become a planned
fifteen volumes, but will still leave out such topics as the history of art
and of literature, many aspects of economics and technology, and all the
riches of local history.
The striking advances in our knowledge of China's past over the last
decade will continue and accelerate. Western historians of this great and
complex subject are justified in their efforts by the needs of their own
peoples for greater and deeper understanding of China. Chinese history
belongs to the world, not only as a right and necessity, but also as a subject
of compelling interest.
JOHN K. FAIRBANK
DENIS TWITCHETT
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
CONTENTS
General editors' preface Page v
List of maps xiii
List of tables xvi
Preface to volume xviii
1 Introduction: perspectives on modern China's history
by MARY B. RANKIN, Washington, DC, JOHN K.
FAIRBANK, Professor of History, Emeritus, Harvard University,
and ALBERT FEUERWERKER, Professor of History, University
of Michigan, Ann Arbor i
Change and continuity: periodization 4
Growth and change in the Chinese economy 11
Changes in social structure and behaviour 29
State and society in the revolutionary process 49
2 China's international relations 1911—1931
bySmNKiCHi ET 6, Professor of International delations,
Aqyama Gakuin University, Tokyo 74
Context: decline and fall of the Ch'ing empire as an East
Asian regional order 74
Japan's rise to power in Manchuria 82
Japan's Twenty-one Demands 92
Japanese influence and China's participation in the First
World War 100
The Washington Conference and China 103
Moscow's dual approach to China 107
China's Nationalist Revolution and the powers 111
3 Nationalist China during the Nanking decade 1927-1937
by LLOYD E. EASTMAN, Professor of History, University of
Illinois, Urbana 116
The initial consolidation of power 116
vii
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Vlll CONTENTS
The struggle in the provinces 124
Factors contributing to Chiang Kai-shek's political
dominance 130
Ideology, structure and functioning of the Nanking
regime 134
Kuomintang factions 141
Achievements of the Nationalist regime 147
China's new mood 1936—7 160
An assessment of Nationalist rule during the Nanking
decade 163
4 The Communist movement 1927-1937
by JEROME CH'EN, Professor ojHistory, York University, Toronto 168
Reconstitution and leadership of the party 168
Creation of rural Soviets 183
The search for a strategy 198
Destruction of the Soviets 204
Underground work in the 'white area' 216
Preparation for the second united front 220
5 The agrarian system
by RAMON H. MYERS, Hoover Institution on War, Revolution
and Peace, Palo Alto 230
Aspects of the agrarian system 233
Commercialization of agriculture 250
The agrarian crisis 256
6 Peasant movements
by LUCIEN BIANCO, Professeur a I'Ecole des Hautes Etudes en
Sciences Sociales, Paris (translated by Janet Lloyd) 270
Spontaneous resistance to rents and taxes 273
Spontaneous peasant agitation: typology and
characteristics 288
Peasants and Communists: the unequal alliance 305
7 The development of local government
by PHILIP A. KUHN, Professor of History and of East Asian
Languages and Civilisations, Harvard University 3 29
The role of elites in local government 330
Regional regimes 340
Early policies of Nanking on local administration 344
The rural reconstruction movement 3 5 3
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CONTENTS IX
8 The growth of the academic community 1912-1949
by E-TU ZEN SUN, Professor of Chinese History, Pennsylvania
State University 361
The emergence of modern institutions 1898-1928 363
Higher education and nation-building during the Nanking
decade 387
War and postwar changes 1937-1949 412
9 Literary trends: the road to revolution 1927—1949
by LEO OU-FAN LEE, Professor of Chinese Literature,
University of Chicago 421
Literature of the thirties 1927—1937 421
The League of Left-wing Writers and the polemics on
literature 428
Literary creativity and social crisis 445
War and revolution 1937-1949 466
The Yenan Forum 475
On the eve of revolution 1945-1949 486
10 Japanese aggression and China's international position
1931-1949
byAiciRA IRIYE, Professor of History, University of Chicago 492
The world economic crisis: China's marginality 492
The Manchurian incident: Japan's revisionist militarism
1931-1932 499
The collapse of internationalism 5 04
Japan's attempt to get regional cooperation 1933—1937 509
Power configurations during the Sino-Japanese War
i937-I94i 519
China and Japan in the Second World War 1941-1945 530
China's postwar eclipse 1945-1949 540
11 Nationalist China during the Sino-Japanese War 1937-1945
by LLOYD E. EASTMAN 547
Initial campaigns and strategy 1937—1939 547
China's mobilization for war 557
Deterioration 1939—1945: the military 566
Foreign military aid 5 76
Japan's Ichigo offensive 1944 580
The inflation disaster 5 84
The industrial sector 592
Political debilitation 601
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X CONTENTS
12 The Chinese Communist movement during the
Sino-Japanese War 1937—1945
by LYMAN VAN SLYKE, Professor of History, Stanford
University 609
I The early war years 1937-1938 610
Attitude toward the Kuomintang: the united front 611
Military strategy and tactics 613
Leaders and leadership 615
Organizational structure and activities 619
Japanese invasion and Chinese initial responses 626
Formation of base areas 631
II The middle years 1939-1943 658
'Friction' with the Nationalists 659
The New Fourth Army incident 665
Japanese consolidation 671
CCP responses: survival and new policies 683
III The last years of the war 1944—1945 705
Operation Ichigo and its consequences 705
Political and military expansion 708
The United States and the Chinese Communists 712
The Seventh Congress 716
The Chinese Communists and the Soviet Union 718
Prospects 721
13 The KMT-CCP conflict 1945-1949
by SUZANNE PEPPER, Universities Service Centre, Hong Kong -723
Negotiations and American involvement -723
The decline of KMT rule
737
The growth of Communist power y 51
The civil war 1946-1949 -758
The demise of the KMT government and failure of
American policy -782
14 Mao Tse-tung's thought to 1949
by STUART SCHRAM, Professor of Politics, School of Oriental
and African Studies, University of London -789
From the student movement to the peasant movement
1917-1927 8
7 9
Party, army and masses 1927-1937 g g
T
National contradictions and social contradictions
1937-1940 837
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