Table Of Contentthe Barnes Review
. . .
TO BRING HISTORY INTO ACCORD WITH THE FACTS
In the Tradition of the Father of Historical Revisionism, Dr. Harry Elmer Barnes
MAY/JUNE 2001 (cid:3) VOLUME VII (cid:3) NUMBER 3
Table of Contents
5
THE DUAL NATURE OF THE BYZANTINE EMPIRE—EDWARD T. MAY
A key part of our Western heritage is too often forgotten: The eastern half of the Roman empire, known to us as the
Byzantine empire, for more than a millennium protected Christian civilization against the power of Islam....
11
WHAT THEY DIDN’T TELL YOU ABOUT BYZANTIUM—DR. M. RAPHAEL JOHNSON
John Julius Norwich has just recently published a concise history of Byzantium that is a veritable treasure house of facts
about the Roman empire in the east, but falls a bit short as a work of true history. A book review....
17
HOMILY ON THE “JEWISH QUESTION”—ST. JOHN CHRYSOSTOM
One of the greatest saints of all time is well remembered by students of the history of Christianity. But a vital portion
of his teachings has been dumped into the memory hole, because it is seen as politically incorrect....
23
LITTLE-KNOWN FACTS REGARDING AFRICAN SLAVERY—STEVEN A. RAPER
The enslavement of Africans by Africans is an ancient native custom and still continues in the Dark Continent today.
Here is a look at some shameful “roots” the establishment would rather you not know about....
29
THE RISE & FALL OF THE ZEPPELINS—JOHN TIFFANY
Until the mysterious demise of the mighty Hindenburg, these giant dirigibles ruled the skies of the planet.
Here is the exciting story of how the behemoths of the air came to be and how their reign ended. ...
35
WAS ALBERT EINSTEIN A “ROCKET SCIENTIST”?—DR. V.S. HERRELL
The name “Einstein” has become a synonym for “genius.” But how many of his ideas were really his own, and how many
did he “borrow” from other physicists? ...
41
THE LEGEND OF DUNKIRK DEBUNKED—MICHAEL WALSH
The British government took a retreat and by the power of propaganda made it appear to be a victory. Not
only was it a horrible disaster for the British, but Dunkirk also shows the conciliatory intentions of the National
Socialist German leaders....
45
AMERICA’S RELATIONSHIP WITH JAPAN: 1853-1945—MICHAEL CRANE
America used a mailed fist in a velvet glove to force Japan to open up its ports and provide concessions to the
U.S. government.Commodore Perry even went so far as to try to set up an American colony in the Bonin Islands
just off the coast of Japan.But the result was the awakening of a sleeping dragon. .. .
51
CRUCIFYING THE SAVIOR OF FRANCE—HARRYELMER BARNES
Marshal Henri Pétain was, on four separate occasions, “the savior of France.” He even warned his countrymen against the
Nazi German menace. Yet he was sentenced to die by his own countrymen. Why? . . .
61
THE ALLIES’ AWFUL TREATMENT OF POST-WWII PRISONERS—VIVIAN BIRD
Is it now high time for British, American and other Allied officers from World War II to stand trial as war criminals for
the atrocities they perpetrated on civilians and POWs who happened to be German?...
65
THE VIRGINIA DECLARATION OF RIGHTS—TONY BLIZZARD
In many ways, this prototype of both the U.S. Constitution and the Declaration of Independence, though largely
forgotten, was actually superior to either of those sacred American documents....
67
THE SAGA OF THE SPIRIT POND RUNE STONES—JOHN CHAPMAN
For decades, four small stones found in coastal Maine and inscribed mysteriously with Viking runes and Keltic ogam
writing baffled scholars. Now at last they have been translated from the Old Icelandic, and tell a tragic and romantic
tale of early Christian explorers from the Old World, nearly 1,000 years ago. . . .
Personal from the Editor
I
n the well-known photo on this page, Albert Einstein pokes selves and to increase their own power. Over a period of more
out his tongue. Is he just clowning around, showing what a than 400 years, black Africans enslaved about 21 million of their
funny guy he can be? Or is he showing his contempt for the own people. Of these, nearly 12 million died within their first
public? Was Einstein one of the greatest year of slavery in Africa, mainly as a result of poor
con men of all time? For an explosive view food and little water, or as a result of being sacri-
about this possibly overrated “supergenius,” ficed, tortured to death for entertainment and/or
see our article starting on page 35. being eaten.
(cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) It should be noted that it was not the Africans
Our cover this issue shows Byzantine Em- who ended the transatlantic slave trade, but rather
peror Heraclius defeating the Persian ruler the Europeans and Americans. If it had not been for
Khosrow II, in A.D. 627. Persia had tempor- the heroic mission of the white powers in Africa, life
arily conquered Jerusalem, only to see it there would no doubt be much harsher than it is
taken back by the Byzantines. Soon a rising today. In Africa itself, despite the efforts of the for-
Islam would take the holy city for itself. The mer colonial powers, chattel slavery has continued
reign of another Byzantine emperor, Justin - down to the present. Overall, the history of African
ian, was marked by some of the greatest mil- slavery should be understood as a crime Africans
itary achievements of all time, under the gen- perpetrated against one another; and the liberal-
erals Belisarius and Narses: reconquering the inspired tirades against “white devils” should end.
key ex-Roman states of Italy, Spain and North And there’s lots more great Revisionist material
Africa. The most im portant and respected for you to digest, so turn off the television, settle
source for this period is Procopius of Caes- yourself in your favorite easy chair, and enjoy the
area. Procopius accompanied Belisarius on some of his great con- fascinating material contained within the pages of this issue of
quests and wrote some official histories of the wars and of Jus - THEBARNESREVIEW. (cid:3)
tinian’s immense building programs. He ensured that we re -
member Justinian as a political and military genius. That was
the Barnes review
true, as far as it went. But Procopius dared not publicly say what
was really going on in the personal lives of Justinian and his wife Publisher: W.A. CARTO
and others of his inner circle. He feared for his life if he did. So Editor: JOHNTIFFANY
he wrote another, secret history, with strict instructions that it Associate Editor: M. RAPHAELJOHNSON
Contributing Editor: FREDBLAHUT
was not to be published until after his death. This history was so Contributing Editor: DANIELMICHAELS
shocking that many scholars have wanted to believe it a forgery. Copy Editor: ANDREWGRAY
Yet its pedigree, and every test that can be made on it, show it is Production Director: PAULT. ANGEL
bona fide. For more on the little-remembered history of this key THEBARNESREVIEW(ISSN 1078-4799) is published bimonthly by TBR Co.,
part of the medieval world, see our symposium of articles—the 130 Third Street SE, Washington, D.C. 20003. Periodical rate postage paid at
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The slave trade in Africa (pp. 23 ff.) has been often misused by
reprints may be made without permission so long as THEBARNESREVIEWis
political factions pursuing their own agendas. Books by what given proper credit and no changes are made. All manuscripts submitted must
Harry Elmer Barnes would call the “court historians” at tempt to be typewritten and doublespaced. No responsibility can be assumed for unre-
turned manuscripts. Change of address: Send your old, incorrect mailing label
paint a picture of a “Merrie Old Africa.” School children are
and your new, correct address neatly printed or typed 30 days before you move
taught that sub-Saharan Africa was like a Garden of Eden before to assure delivery. Advertising: MEDIA PLACEMENT SERVICE, Sharon DeWitt,
the advent of the “evil white devils,” who oppressed the blacks in 301-722-1948 or fax 301-722-2810. Website: www.barnesreview.org. Email:
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their native land, and carried some of them away to a life of hor-
rible servitude. But this establishment history of Africa and of POSTMASTER: Send address changes to THEBARNESREVIEW,
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ly false, as it is nothing more than propaganda aimed at defam-
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Editorial
(cid:2) (cid:2)
B : T S R
YZANTIUM HE ECOND OME
T
he history of the eastern Roman empire of Byzantium culturally; she became, in spite of her own self-image, another
might seem a radically esoteric topic for Western read- nation rather than an empire. Her mission was to continue the
ers. But Byzantium’s influence and importance is vast- legacy of western and Latin Rome (and in fact, the early years of
ly understated by those who believe that the Roman the eastern empire, even under Justinian, saw the continuation
empire fell in the fifth century, and that the Western philosophi- of the court usage of the Latin language) under the new banner
cal tradition came to us from the Arabs, through Spain. Much of of the Orthodox and Catholic Church.
our modern knowledge of ancient Greece, her religion and philo- A strong and proud Byzantine sense of racial identity came
sophical traditions was actually preserved in Byzantium. The into being as her boundaries encompassed mostly Greeks after
notion of a Christian empire derives from the Byzantines. military losses to Islam and the west. For example, a manual of
Furthermore, the idea of the rule of law was maintained by statecraft, De Administrando Imperio, written by Constantine
emperors such as Justinian and his successors in the former VII, reads: “For just as each animal mates with its own tribe, so
eastern part of the Roman world after the fall of the western half it is right that each nation should also marry and cohabit not
of the empire. with those of another race and tongue, but of the same tribe and
The Byzantines are known as a proud people who believed speech.” And in another passage:
that Con stantine’s reception of Chris -
tian ity set them apart from the rest of
If any nation of these infidel and
hu manity. Byzantium saw itself, ra - dishonorable tribes of the north shall
ther unabashedly, as the manifesta- ever demand a marriage alliance with
tion of a new chosen people, called to the emperor of the Romans, and
either to take his daughter to wife, or
bring the benefits of a truly Christian
to give a daughter of their own to
civilization and moral politics to the theirs also you should rebut, saying:
world. The theoretical claim to uni- “Concerning this matter also a dread
versal political jurisdiction was never and authentic charge and ordinance
of the great and holy Constantine is
abandoned by the Byzantine mind,
engraved upon the sacred table of the
right up until the end, in 1453.
universal church of the Christians, St.
For nearly 1,000 years, Byzantium Sophia, that never shall an emperor of
was the first line of defense in Europe the Romans ally himself in marriage
against Islam. Islamic expansionism with a nation of customs differing
from and alien to those of the Roman
was a fact of its life, and military ex -
order... unless it be with the Franks
pansion was central to Islam’s own alone.” (Quoted in Browning, The
self-image from nearly the moment of Byzantine Empire, Notre Dame, 125.)
its inception. As both Byzantium and
Persia exhausted each other with an Regardless of the multi-ethnic na -
endless series of wars in the sixth and ture of the early empire, its laws, cus-
seventh centuries, the political vacu- toms, religion and way of life were
um in the Levant was filled by Mo - thoroughly Greek, or that of a Hellen -
hammed’s writings and the military ized Rome.
organization that formed seemingly One aspect of Byzantine life and
immediately around him. The Levant politics that needs to be understood if
as a part of “European civilization” one is to grasp the reasons why By -
was now in the past. One must re- zantium maintained itself for near ly
member that “Europe” was a far larg- 1,000 years is the theme system of
er place previous to the ap pear ance of land tenure. This system was populist
MESHACHDEPICTEDINABYZANTINEMOSAIC.
Islam. Of the Byzantine empire’s in nature and was a response to the
many enemies, whether it be the Franks, the Lombards, the numerous enemies on all fronts the Byzantines had to contend
Avars, the Vene tians or even the early Slavs, it was militant and with, even prior to the rise of Islam. The Byzantine empire need-
expansionist Islam that proved Byzantium’s undoing in the mid- ed to develop a means by which the entire empire might main -
dle of the 15th century and caused it the most trouble during pre- tain the loyalty of its citizens, create a sense of common cause
vious centuries. and develop a native military system that would avoid the
The notion of Byzantine identity is a central concept. Empires always problematic use of foreign mercenaries.
are by definition multicultural, for this is what differentiates Byzantium’s rejection of a hereditary system of rule while still
them from nations. But empires, in order to remain such, must remaining a monarchical regime proves the interest in rule by
have some notion of their identity, a self-conscious vision of them- merit, strength and, most importantly, military prowess. The con-
selves, in order to articulate a political and social sense of pur- trol of economic life in the cities of the empire by the guilds, how-
pose that might be able to unify numerous peoples under them. ever controlled by the emperor, shows that Byzantium was
The question of a militant sort of cultural integration was utter- deeply committed to a proper standard of living for its skilled
ly beyond the pale. For Byzantium, though its boundaries encom- labor and an interest in excellence, and there was a sort of “bal-
passed many peoples, remained a Greek state. Eventually, as ance of power” system among church, guild, army and emperor.
Byzantium shrank, she became largely Greek racially as well as —MRJ
Shown is a floor mosaic from Jerusalem depicting Christ as “Orpheus among the animals.” Such artistic skill
proves the tremendous level of advancement Christian art had achieved in Constantinople and shows an obvi-
ous continuity with ancient Roman and Greek traditions.
T D N
HE UAL ATURE OF THE
B E
YZANTINE MPIRE
. . . A T A P
ND HE NECDOTA OF ROCOPIUS
BYEDWARDT. MAY
When considering vast events such as the fall of the western Roman
empire, the linkage of specific events with exact dates is a dicey proposition
at best. One cannot say, for example, that the empire began its demise in a
certain year, or that its absolute collapse occurred on such-and-such a day.
With this caveat in mind, we may tentatively suggest the genesis of the
Byzantine empire as having occurred when Zeno, emperor of the eastern
portion of the Roman empire, assumed sovereignty over the remains of that
empire in the late 5th century A.D. Thus, the section of the Roman empire that
managed to survive the “barbarian” invasions, and which, as it happened,
was centered in Constantinople, became the Byzantine empire, a realm that
survived until Constantinople fell to the Ottoman Turks in A.D. 1453.
G
eography dictated the Byzantine In 326 Constantine, rebuilding on the so thoroughly Latinized that he felt com-
(Roman) em pire would possess ruins of the great city destroyed by pelled to impose a Roman style of architec-
some thing of a dual nature. Septimus Severus, created a late classi- ture on Constantinople. The church of
cal cosmopolis of the first rank, into
Strad dling the border between As ia and Hagia Sophia, perhaps Justinian’s most
which presently streamed hoary Apol -
Europe, the empire experienced a tug of linism from the west and youthful Ma - famous contribution to the world of art and
war between the Latin world and the gism from the east. And long afterward architecture, did not utilize the plan of the
Greek, between the Occident and the again, in 1096, it is a late Magian cos- Roman basilica. Among other differences
Orient, between Christian and non-Chris - mopolis, confronted in its last autumn the architects of the church employed a
days with spring in the shape of
tian. The population was composed of “a Godfrey of Bouillon’s crusaders..... As technique known as “pendentive” construc-
motley assemblage of peoples.”1Egyptians, the easternmost of the classical west, tion, a method that “apparently was devel-
Armenians, Jews, Slavs and Greeks were this city bewitched the Goths; then, a oped after many years of experiment by
but some of the ethnic groups in this “chaos millennium later, as the northernmost builders in the Near East and constitutes
of the Arabian world, it enchanted the
of peoples.”2 Yet the Byzantine empire Rus sians.3 the contribution of Byzantium to architec-
maintained a cohesion and continuity over tural engineering.”4The prominent dome of
the course of its existence that is nothing Some measure of this dual nature Hagia Sophia is certainly not of the
short of remarkable. That the empire was between the east and west is exemplified in Occident either but rather represents,
able to maintain a political unity of sorts the person of the Emperor Justinian, using Spengler’s terminology, the Magian
for 1,000 years is a testament to the admin- arguably the most well known emperor of world-feeling or spirit. The church further
istrative ability of the competent emperors the Byzantine empire. Justinian made deviates from the Roman tradition by
such as Justinian (born 482/3, ruled 527- Latin his language of choice, the last of the using brick rather than concrete as a con-
565) and Heraclius, and the relative effi- Byzantine emperors to do so. It was also struction material.
ciency of an extensive bureaucracy that one of his greatest ambitions, one might Not only did Justinian use non-Roman
compensated for the weak emperors. even call it an obsession, to wrest control of aspects of architecture in Constantinople
Oswald Spengler penned an apt de - the Western Roman empire from the bar- he imported those aspects to the re-con-
scription of the dichotomous nature of the barians and reunite it with the Eastern quered lands of the Western Roman empire
Byzantine empire in The Decline of the Roman empire. Yet, despite his devotion to as well. In the church of San Vitale in
West. the old Roman empire, Justinian was not Ravenna “Light filtered through alabaster-
PAGE 6 the barnes review MAY/JUNE
paned windows plays over the glittering ings; all of which belong by right to the balls bearing flax and tow soaked in oil;
mosaics and glowing marbles that cover sphere of the dialectician and the or it was loaded and fired on small boats
the building’s complex surfaces, producing philosopher. The Apostle Paul also, in which were set adrift against the foe.
writing to Titus, has used a line of the The composition of the mixture was a
an effect of sumptuousness that is not poet Epimenidas....7 secret successfully guarded for two cen-
Western but Oriental. And, indeed, the
turies by the Byzantine government; to
inspiration for this design is to be found in In one area Justinian did not feel reveal any knowledge of it was treason
Byzantium rather than Rome.”5 inclined to compromise between the Latin and sacrilege.... Until the invention of
Likewise, the art of the Byzantine world and the Greek, that area being the gwuenappoown diner t hiet mweadsi etvhael wmoorsltd .1ta0 lked-of
empire underwent a noticeable evolution, law. However, it is interesting to note that C
and it was the Christian religion that legislation published after Justinian’s onstantinople was located at the focal
played a key role in the transformation. death was not in Latin but in Greek. While point of the trade routes, both land
The realism portrayed in art of the Roman Greek became the new language of law in and water, between Europe and Asia. This
empire succumbed to the hieratic6charac- the Byzantine empire, the law itself re - being the case, it was perhaps inevitable
teristics employed by the Byzantine artists. mained Roman despite the fact some histo- that commerce would become the lifeblood
Paintings and mosaics drastically reduced rians feel Justinian’s corpus juriswas infe- of the Byzantine empire. Just as the
the emphasis on the physical by negating rior to early Roman law. In this regard American dollar at one time was preferred
individuality. Human figures became rigid Houston Stewart Chamberlain has re - over local currencies in many part of the
and stylized while spiritual aspects were marked that “the Justinian corpus juris world, so the Byzantine “solidus” was used
enhanced. In the later Byzantine empire, with which we are familiar is only the em - in Asia and Europe until its value was
the straight lines and unforgiving angles of balmed corpse of Roman law.”8 debased in the latter half of the empire’s
the early period eventually gave way to the O existence. Customs duties proved to be a
soft curves and sweeps of classic ne aspect of the Byzantine empire dependable and vital source of income for
Hellenistic art, although the religious that changed markedly from that of the empire. Justinian’s greatest coup in the
motifs were faithfully re tained. The icono- the old Roman empire was the art of war- field of commerce came when he managed
clasts gained ascendancy for a time and fare. The emperors in the east found that to break the Far East’s monopoly on silk
artworks were limited to sym bols and dec- the legion, remarkably adept as it was in production. A resourceful group of Nes -
orative scrollwork. In this respect the art dealing with the barbarians of the west, torian monks, after smuggling silkworm
was definitely Islamic in flavor. When the was unable to compete with the mounted eggs out of Asia, bestowed on Justinian the
iconoclasts were overthrown, the painted archers of the east. Adapting to this exi- basis of a moneymaking enterprise. As a
icon flourished and became a pedagogical gency the military planners developed the result money no longer flowed out of
tool, being used to instruct the illiterate in cataphract,9 an armored rider equipped Imperial coffers to purchase silk from Chi -
Christian belief. with lance, bow, and sword, and mounted na and, since the production of silk fabric
In a similar fashion, Justinian did not on an armored horse. The cataphract be - was a state run monopoly, the local silk
feel his allegiance to the ideals of the Latin came the mainstay of the Byzantine army. industry became another conduit of rev-
world necessitated an adherence to pagan- With his two competent generals, Beli - enue for the government.
ism, and he decreed Christianity to be not sarius and Nar ses, wielding his military However, Constantinople’s commercial
simply the official religion of the empire forces, Justinian was not only able to keep prosperity also engendered jealousy on the
but the only lawful religion. Heretics to the the eastern empire intact but also managed part of her competitors, particularly Ven ice.
Christian religion were dealt with harshly, to reconquer north Africa, the southern por- The Venetians took advantage of the fact
many finding the Islamic empire more tol- tion of Spain, Italy, and Dalmatia. Jus tin - that the Byzantine empire had abandoned
erant than the Byzantine. Christianity ian nearly succeeded in turning the Medi - much of its European heritage and had
manifested itself to a great degree in the terranean once again into a Roman lake. grafted aspects of the Oriental culture into
realms of art and literature. Religious trea- However, the reconquest reached its ze nith its body politic to incite hostilities between
tises, hymns, and works delineating the under Jus tinian, and thereafter the By zan - the French knights of the Fourth Crusade
lives of the saints proliferated. Although tine empire was whittled away by its ene- and the Greeks of Constantinople.
Christianity eventually supplanted pagan- mies until all that was left was Con stan -
ism in the empire, it found it could not com- tinople itself. Not only did the Byzan tine In general Greeks got on better with
pletely divorce itself from its old opponent, em pire modify existing military forces to infidels than with Latins, perhaps
because they shared a common form of
particularly in the field of literature. When meet the demands of the moment, it was government. An infidel sultan, like a
asked why he used non-Christian refer- also capable of devising new devices in the Greek emperor, had seized power by his
ences in his writings, St. Jerome admitted art of war fare. One such innovation en - own efforts; he was maintained on his
that pagan literature had its place in a abled the Byzantine empire, under the Em - throne by a mercenary army; the sole
duty of his subjects was to pay taxes,
Chris tian society: per or Constantine IV, to check the tide of
and in return he owed his subjects no
Islam in the 7th century A.D. The invention duty at all. Every Greek was shocked by
[W]ho is there who does not know known as “Greek fire” proved to be a deci- the boisterous conduct of Frankish
that both in Moses and in the prophets sive factor in the defense of Constan tin ople. freemen, who thought nothing of armed
there are passages cited from gentile resistance to a lord who infringed the
books and that Solomon proposed ques- The Byzantine navy employed “Greek fire” rights of his men.11
tions to the philosophers of Tyre and against the Arabs with telling effect.
answered others put to him by them. In As a result of this intrigue between the
the commencement of the book of [A]n incendiary mixture of naphtha, crusaders and the Venetians, Constantin -
Proverbs he charges us to understand quicklime, sulfur, and pitch; it was ople was sacked in A.D. 1204, and Venice
prudent maxims and shrewd adages, thrown against enemy ships or troops snatched “all the commercially profitable
parables and obscure discourse, the on flaming arrows, or blown against
harbors and islands in the empire.”12
words of the wise and their dark say- them through tubes, or shot on iron
MAY/JUNE the barnes review PAGE 7
The moral sphere of existence in the
Byzantine empire also became a battle-
ground between the conflicting world-
views of the east and the west. “The Roman
virtues had disappeared even before the
Latin tongue; Roman and Greek qualities
had been overwhelmed by a flood of uproot-
ed Orientals who had lost their own moral-
ity and had taken on no other except in
words.”13 The population, regardless of
class, while outwardly professing Christi -
anity, was fond of engaging in decidedly
unchristian behavior. “Brutality and piety
took turns in the same imperial souls; and
among the people intensity of religious
need could be adjusted to the corruption or
violence of politics and war.”14Once again,
the reign of Justinian serves as a prime
representative of this duality of character.
In order to delve further into the morality
of the Byzantine empire we must make the
acquaintance of the historian Procopius.
A
large amount of the information we
possess concerning the Byzantine
empire during the reign of Justinian comes
from the historian Procopius. Procopius
This famous mosaic of Empress Theodora and her retinue of ladies in waiting is
was born in Caesarea toward the end of the
now located in the church of San Vitale in Ravenna, Italy. Theodora possessed a
5th century A.D. in the turbulent region of
reputation for skullduggery and was feared as much as Justinian, if not more so,
Palestine.15He became a lawyer and in 527
was designated legal adviser as well as sec- by many people in Constantinople. Plots and intrigues abounded in the court of
retary to Emperor Justinian’s famous gen- Justinian and Theodora. Here the empress appears in her ceremonial robes and
eral, Belisarius (505-565). Procopius ac - crown, against an elegant background that probably represents her rooms in the
com panied Belisarius on his campaigns imperial palace.
against the Goths in Italy, the Vandals in
North Africa and the Persians. Procopius Procopius “was the last of the great histori- devotee of assassination and of robbery,
ans in the classical Greek tradition.”19 quarrelsome and an inveterate innova-
detailed these events, up to the year 554, in
Arnold Toynbee was of the opinion that tor, easily led astray into wrong, but
his History of the Wars, compiled in eight influenced by no counsel to adopt the
Procopius was “the last of the great Hel -
books. Since Procopius was something of a right, keen to conceive and to execute
court historian (Harry Elmer Barnes lenic historians.”20J. Bury was equally im - base designs.... Nature seemed to have
noted: “[H]e was a formal apologist for the pressed, stating “His writings attest that removed all baseness from the rest of
Procopius had received an excellent liter- mankind and to have concentrated it in
aristocracy of wealth and official posi- ary education.”21Yet in spite of his creden- the soul of this man.22
tion”16), the narratives reflect rather favor-
tials, Procopius is still able to incite contro-
ably on Belisarius. While the attitude of The Empress Theodora is one of the
Procopius toward the Emperor Justinian in versy due to his work known as The Anec - main targets of Procopius. The following is
his History of the Wars is somewhat dota. The Anecdota, or Secret History, or one of the tamer passages concerning
ambivalent, Justinian was heavily praised Un published Memoirs, purports to be a Theodora referencing her activities prior to
by Procopius in a volume titled The Build - sup plement to History of the Wars. Prob - becoming empress.
ably written around 550, it recounts the
ings of Justinian, a six-book panegyric to
salacious and disreputable activities of the
the emperor, probably written in 561 Later she was following in the train
players at the court of the Emperor Jus -
(according to The Medieval Sourcebook on of Hecebolus, a Tyrian, who had taken
the Internet).17 tinian and his wife the Empress Theodora over the administration of Pentapolis,
(d. 547/8). Procopius, knowing full well the serving him in the most shameful capac-
P
consequences of discovery, kept the explo- ity; but she gave some offense to the
rocopius is generally lauded as one of
man and was driven thence with all
sive material under wraps during his life-
the better historians in Western civi- speed; consequently it came about that
time. (He died probably in the 560s or
lization (if Byzantium can be considered she was at a loss for the necessities of
Western). Will Durant remarked that thereabouts.) The following is an example life, which she proceeded to provide in
of what Procopius had to say concerning her usual way, putting her body to work
Procopius was “The one great historian of
Justinian: at its unlawful traffic. She first went to
the period. . . . His industry was coura- Alexandria; later, after making the
geous, his arrangement of materials is log- round of the whole east, she made her
ical, his narrative is absorbing, his Greek is [T]his emperor was insincere, crafty, way back to Byzantium, plying her
hypocritical, dissembling his anger, trade in each city (a trade which a man
clear and direct, and almost classically
double-dealing, clever.... He was a fick- could not call by name, I think, without
pure.”18 Prof. John Barker concedes that le friend, a truceless enemy, an ardent forfeiting forever the compassion of
PAGE 8 the barnes review MAY/JUNE
God), as if Heaven could not bear that tain amount of rationalization when deal- jects and distrusted when writing about
any spot should be unacquainted with ing with it. Quite often historians, in a other subjects.
the wantonness of Theodora.23 futile attempt to have their cake and eat it
as well, will contradict themselves concern- It is a fascinating book, like any
Antonina, the wife of Belisarius, fares
ing The Anecdota. The following is an ex - denunciation of our neighbors; but
no better. there is something unpleasant in liter-
cellent example of the paradoxical ap -
ary attacks upon persons who can no
proach historians seem to inevitably adopt
longer speak in their own defense. An
Straightway, therefore, she decided
regarding The Anecdota. historian who strains his pen to prove a
upon being an adulteress from the very
thesis may be trusted to distort the
start, but she was very careful to con-
truth. Procopius was occasionally inac-
ceal this business, not because she was Untrustworthy as The Secret History
curate in matters beyond his own expe-
ashamed of her own practices, nor may be, it provides a fascinating anti-
rience; he copied at times the manner
because she entertained any fear so far dote to the official panegyrics as well as
and philosophy of Herodotus, at times
as her husband was concerned (for she a useful glimpse into the dark corridors
the speeches and sieges of Thucydides;
never experienced the slightest feeling of the Great Palace. And even in The
he shared the superstitions of his age,
of shame for any action whatsoever and Secret History, the comments of the man
and darkened his pages with portents,
she had gained complete control of her who has seen the ravages of war have
husband by means of many tricks of the ring of truth.28 oracles, miracles, and dreams. But
where he wrote of what he had seen, his
mpuangiisch),m beuntt tbheec eamusper esshs em idgrheta idnefldi ctth.2e4 In the space of one short paragraph we account has stood every test.34
see The Anecdotabeing described in terms J. Bury as well seems to have struggled
AWnaeBrcsed,l oistdaao.r eiAus st, npoorntae i sgpeodo i niuntn Tsinhca e ttHhheeis dtn oraiynr r oafT ttihhveee a“uss Eecfovuneltn.”r aad sicchtoorlya r aosf E“udwntarruds tGwiobrbtohny’s” eamnid- Ahwinistethco drtiohctaeal qdcuoouceusldtmi oebnne t o.c fB ownushriyde teshrteeardt e osar, s “ tnaho etv sTaelhlifde-
Belisarius was experiencing the disfavor of
nence seems to be of two minds concerning defeating maliciousness of the whole per-
Justinian and was relieved of his com-
this particular work of Procopius. As formance discredits the work, and has even
mand. Theodora, returning a favor to
regards Belisarius and Antonina, Gibbon suggested doubts whether it could have
Antonina, made it appear that she had
states the following: been written at all by the sober and respon-
interceded with Justinian on behalf of
sible historian of the wars. The authorship,
Antonina, restoring Belisarius to a certain
The generous reader may cast away however, is indisputable.”35 How ever, Bury
degree. When Belisarius heard the news:
the libel, but the evidence of facts will tempers this harsh indictment with the fol-
adhere to his memory; and he will reluc-
lowing words.
[H]e straightway arose and fell on his tantly confess that the fame and even
face before the feet of his wife. And the virtue of Belisarius were polluted by
clasping both her knees with either the lust and cruelty of his wife, and that . . . [W]e must carefully distinguish
hand and constantly shifting his tongue the hero deserved an appellation which between the facts which the author
from one of the woman’s ankles to the may not drop from the pen of the decent records, and the interpretation which
other, he kept calling her the cause of historian.29 he places upon them. Malice need not
his life and his salvation, and promising resort to invention. It can serve its pur-
thenceforth to be, not her husband, but Of The Anecdota in general, we have pose far more successfully by adhering
her faithful slave.25 this statement of Gibbon’s to ponder: to facts, misrepresenting motives, and
suppressing circumstances which point
Procopius does not spare the justice sys- to a different interpretation. That this
Of these strange anecdotes, a part was the method followed by Procopius
tem from his deftly aimed barbs. During
may be true, because probable; and a is certain. For we find that in a large
Justinian’s reign the contention existing part true, because improbable. Proco - number of cases his facts are borne out
between the factions competing in the hip- pius must have known the former, and by other contemporary sources, while
podrome spilled over into the daily life of the latter he could scarcely invent.30 in no instance can we convict him of a
statement which has no basis in fact.36
Constantinople, and soon became nothing
Yet, when discussing the reason for the
more than unrestrained criminal behavior.
tactics employed by Belisarius in the Procopius himself seems to have fore-
The following describes how the judges
Persian theater of war, Gibbon seems less seen the scholastic shock waves that The
handled members of the blue faction26who sure of the reliability of the information Anecdota was sure to generate. He pres-
were arrested and brought before the
contained in The Anecdota. Gibbon says, ents an able defense of his work in the
court.
“with some slight exceptions, we may rea- opening pages.
sonably shut our ears against the malevo-
[A]nd those who sat in judgment, in
lent whisper of the anecdotes.”31 [I]t was not possible, as long as the
rendering their decisions on the points
in dispute, gave their verdicts, not as John Barker describes The Anecdotaas actors were still alive, for these things
to be recorded in the way they should
seemed to them just and lawful, but “probably the most infamous and scur-
have been. For neither was it possible to
according as each of the disputants had rilous piece of sustained character assassi- elude the vigilance of multitudes of
hostile or friendly relations with the
factions.27 nation in all of literature.”32 Yet Barker spies, nor, if detected, to escape a most
also states that “used with caution and in cruel death.... I find myself stammering
and shrinking as far from it as possible,
Was the history of Procopius a factual careful relation to other materials, even
as I weigh the chances that such things
history as well as a secret history? Should The Secret Historyis of considerable value are now to be written by me as will seem
The Anecdotabe completely disregarded as to the historian of Justinian.”33 neither credible nor probable to men of
the rantings of a frustrated court histori- Will Durant also formed an opinion con- a later generation; and especially when
an? The Anecdota has proven itself to be cerning the reliability of The Anecdotaand, the mighty stream of time renders the
story somewhat ancient, I fear lest I
something of a thorn in the side for histori- like Gibbon and Barker, he feels Procopius
shall earn the reputation of being even
ans who find it necessary to employ a cer- is to be trusted when writing on some sub- a narrator of myths and shall be ranked
MAY/JUNE the barnes review PAGE 9
The church (now a mosque) of Hagia Sophia in Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), is undoubtedly the most famous and
easily recognizable piece of architecture surviving from the Byzantine empire. The minarets, added after the Turks had
taken Constantinople, coupled with the church, exemplify the Asiatic heritage of Turkey. Other than the addition of the
minarets, the building is substantially unaltered. Reproduced from an early 19th-century engraving.
among the tragic poets. But I shall not of Belisarius and the long series of The “appropriate passage” mentioned is
flinch from the immensity of my task, Totila’s39successes; but it is difficult to found in Book V of The History of the Wars.
basing my confidence on the fact that avoid the conjecture that he had It should be noted that Procopius, as he
my account will not be without the sup- received some preferment or recogni-
port of witnesses.37 tion from the emperor.40 himself noted, was not alone in detailing
some of the events written of in The
Significantly, a concrete motive linking It seems a reasonable assumption that Anecdota. In the introduction to the Loeb
Procopius to a deliberate fabrication of if Procopius had received “some preferment Classical Library version, translated by
false hoods seems to have eluded his critics. or recognition from the emperor” the basis H.B. Dewing, we find that, “Procopius of ten
Bury posited that Procopius was disillu- for his vituperation would have been dis- has the support of the testimony of other
sioned by the failure of the later Roman pelled and he would have mollified in some writers of his time. Two writers may be
empire to match the accomplishments of manner his harsh words concerning Jus - quoted here in support both of Proco pius’
the Roman empire in its prime, and then tinian in The Anecdota, yet we see nothing general thesis and of specific statements
allowed his attitude to spill over onto the of the kind taking place. made by him.”43
pages of The Anecdota. Bury has also con- Logic would seem to dictate that the W
jectured that Procopius was bitter due to a published works of Procopius would con- as The Anecdota history, libel or a
lack of personal recognition. tain more falsehoods and exaggerations little of both? As with so much of
than The Anecdota. After all, the published historical writings, the interested party
Any writer who indulges in such an works of Procopius were read by people must read the source documents, consider
orgy of hatred as that which amazes us who held the power of life and death over the context of the times, and draw his own
in The Secret History, exposes himself to him. Procopius even admits, in The Anec - conclusions. As Harry Elmer Barnes noted,
the fair suspicion that he has personal
reasons for spite. We hardly run the risk dota, to lying in The History of the Wars. “[S]uch books as The Secret Historywere a
of doing an injustice to Procopius if we natural product of the times. In an abso-
assume that he was a disappointed Belisarius, coming to Italy for the lutism such as that of Justinian’s day, liter-
man.38 second time, departed from there most ature of this type tends to flourish, since it
ignominiously. For during a space of five
is one of the few outlets for suppressed ex -
Yet Bury contradicts his own hypothesis years he did not succeed once in setting
with the following. foot on any part of the land, as stated by asperation.”44
me in the previous narrative....41 However, is it not fascinating to specu-
late on the reaction of a historian, centuries
An amazing change came to pass in The “previous narrative” to which Pro -
the attitude of Procopius between the co pius refers is Book VII of The History of hence, should he uncover a copy of The
year in which he composed The Secret the Wars. Another example of Procopius fal - Secret Life of Bill Clinton? It is not so diffi-
History and 10 years later when he cult to imagine him commenting on the
sifying official history can be seen in the
wrote his work on The Buildings, in book in some fashion such as this: “It is
which he bestows on the policy and acts following excerpt.
probably the most infamous and scurrilous
of the emperor superlative praise which
would astonish us as coming from the And as he was setting out, the emper- piece of sustained character assassination
author of The History of the Wars, even if or gave him such instructions as have in all of literature.”
The Secret Historyhad been lost or ne - been set forth in the appropriate pas- Despite the moral failings of the popula-
ver written. The victories of Narses had sage, where, however, it was impossible
tion, the Byzantine empire was able to
probably mitigated the pessimism into for me, through fear of the empress, to
which he had fallen through the failure reveal the truth of what took place.42 inculcate the moral teachings of Christian -
PAGE 10 the barnes review MAY/JUNE
ity in the Slavic people, not an insignificant
accomplishment and unquestionably a
bles sing to European civilization. The By -
zan tine empire protected Europe for a mil-
lennium against the depredations of the
Arab and Turk. The fact they did so out of
a motive of self-preservation rather than
selfless love for their neighbor is irrelevant,
as is the fact the Turks eventually broke
through the Byzantine impasse and invad-
ed Europe. It is beyond dispute that the
European civilization was able to develop
its inestimable treasures of art, music, lit-
erature, and science for a thousand years
because of the defense provided by the
Byzantine empire. Not only did the By-
zantine empire permit the development of
European culture, it actively contributed to
that culture as well. The knowledge of the
ancient Greeks was hoarded by a faithful
few in the Byzantine empire who transmit-
ted the precious learning they had accu-
mulated to Europe, via Italy, in a move-
Although not as well known as the church of Hagia Sophia, vast, covered cisterns
ment known as the Renaissance. (cid:3)
like this one were an important and practical part of Justinian’s ambitious
building program. Procopius, in his book Buildings, appropriately credited
FOOTNOTES
Justinian: “Thus the Emperor Justinian made provision that the people of
1Durant, 114.
2Chamberlain, Vol. I, 302. Byzantium should not be in want of fresh water.” Water was brought into the
3Spengler, Vol. II, 89. peninsular city from the small hills to the northwest by underground aqueducts.
4Tansey and Kleiner, Vol. I, 291 (italics in
the original). 26(Emerging under the reign of Justinian, Norman, Oklahoma, 1937.
5Ibid., Vol. I, 295. the Blues and the Greens were similar to polit- Bury, J.B., History of the Later Roman
6(Sacred, priestly, sacerdotal.—Ed.) ical parties. Their colors originally were taken Empire(in two volumes), Dover Publications,
7Tierney, Vol. I, 33. from competing chariot teams. Their leaders Inc., New York, 1958.
8Chamberlain, Vol. I, 150. were chosen by the state. The Blues represent- Chamberlain, Houston, Foundations of the
9(Literally, “coat of mail,” but usually the ed the old Greco-Roman aristocracy, while the Nineteenth Century(in two volumes), Flanders
word refers to a soldier wearing scale armor of Greens represented trade, industry and the Hall Publishers, New Orleans, 1988.
the ancient eastern type.—Ed.) civil service.—Ed.) Duggan, Alfred, The Story of the Crusades,
10Durant, 424, 425. 27Procopius, 87. Faber and Faber, London, 1969.
11Duggan, 208. 28Willis, 275. Durant, Will, The Age of Faith(Volume IV
12Ibid., 209. 29Gibbon, Vol. II, 582. in The Story of Civilization), Simon and
13Durant, 433. 30Ibid., Vol. II, 582 (italics in original). Schuster, New York, 1950.
14Ibid. 31Ibid., Vol. II, 610. Gibbon, Edward, The Decline and Fall of
15The Medieval Sourcebook, on the Inter net, 32Barker, 68. the Roman Empire(in two volumes), Random
gives his birthdate at one point as “c. 490/507” 33Ibid., 78. House, New York.
and at another point as “c. 490/510.” 34Durant, 125, 126. Procopius, The Anecdota(translated by H.B.
16Barnes, 59. 35Bury, Vol. II, 424. Dewing), Harvard University Press,
17(Procopius’s later life is little known, 36Ibid., 426, 27. Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1969.
although he was given the title of illustrisin 37Procopius, 3, 5. Spengler, Oswald, The Decline of the West
560 and may have been prefect of Constan- 38Bury, Vol. II, 421. (in two volumes), Alfred A. Knopf, New York,
tinople in 562-3.—Ed.) 39(Totila or Baduila was the last king of the 1926-28.
18Durant, 125, 26. Ostrogoths. He was thoroughly routed by Tansey, Richard and Kleiner, Fred,
19Barker, 76. Narses at a battle near Taginae, in the Gardner’s Art Through the Ages(in two vol-
20Toynbee, Vol. I, 194. Apennines west of Ancona, and perished in umes), Harcourt Brace College Publishers,
21Bury, Vol. II, 419. that fight in 552.—Ed.) Forth Worth, 1996.
22Procopius, 99, 101. 40Bury, Vol. II, 428. Tierney, Brian, The Middle Ages(in two vol-
23Ibid., 111, 13. 41Procopius, 55. umes), Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1978.
24Procopius, 9. 42Ibid., 189. Tierney, Brian and Painter, Sidney, Western
25Ibid., 51. 43Procopius, xiii. Europe in the Middle Ages, 300-1475, Alfred A.
44Barnes, 60. Knopf, Inc., New York, 1978.
After approximately 12 years in the engi- Toynbee, Arnold, A Study of History(in two
neering profession, Edward T. May is cur- BIBLIOGRAPHY volumes), Oxford University Press, Oxford,
rently a substitute teacher. He enjoys writing Barker, John, Justinian and the Later 1946.
in his spare time and is an avid student of Roman Empire, The University of Wisconsin Willis, F., Western Civilization, An Urban
history. Mr. May lives in Colorado with his Press, Madison, Wisconsin, 1966. Perspective(Volume I), D.C. Heath and
wife and two sons. Barnes, Harry, A History of Historical Company, Lexington, Massachusetts, 1977.
Writing, University of Oklahoma Press,
