The Avocado botany, production and uses

604 Pages·2013·11.537 MB·English

by  Schaffer, Bruce A.;Whiley, Antony William;Wolstenholme, B. Nigel

The Avocado
Botany, Production and Uses
2nd Edition
This book is dedicated to the memory of Sarah Kate Whiley
The Avocado
Botany, Production and Uses
2nd Edition
Edited by
Bruce Schaffer
Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, USA
B. Nigel Wolstenholme
University of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
Anthony W. Whiley
Sunshine Horticultural Services, Queensland, Australia
CABI is a trading name of CAB International
CABI CABI
Nosworthy Way 38 Chauncey Street
Wallingford Suite 1002
Oxfordshire OX10 8DE Boston, MA 02111
UK USA
Tel: [phone] Tel: [phone] (toll free)
Fax: [phone] Tel: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected] E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cabi.org
© CAB International 2013. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may
be reproduced in any form or by any means, electronically,
mechanically, by photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior
permission of the copyright owners.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library,
London, UK.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
The avocado : botany, production and uses / [edited by Bruce Schaffer,
B. Nigel Wolstenholme, and Anthony W. Whiley]. -- 2nd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-84593-701-0 (hardcover)
1. Avocado. I. Schaffer, B. (Bruce A.) II. Wolstenholme, B. N. (B. Nigel) III.
Whiley, A. W. (Antony William)
SB379.A9A86 2012
580--dc23
2012026676
ISBN: 978 1 84593 701 0
Commissioning editor: Sarah Hulbert
Editorial assistant: Chris Shire
Production editor: Tracy Head
Typeset by SPi, Pondicherry, India.
Printed and bound by CPI Group (UK) Ltd, Croydon, CR0 4YY.
Contents
Contributors vii
Preface ix
1 Introduction 1
B. Schaffer, B.N. Wolstenholme and A.W. Whiley
2 History, Distribution and Uses 10
J.B. Bost, N.J.H. Smith and J.H. Crane
3 Taxonomy and Botany 31
A.S. Chanderbali, D.E. Soltis, P.S. Soltis and B.N. Wolstenholme
4 Genetics and Breeding 51
E. Lahav and U. Lavi
5 Ecology: Climate and Soils 86
B.N. Wolstenholme
6 Reproductive Biology 118
S. Salazar-García, L.C. Garner and C.J. Lovatt
7 Ecophysiology 168
B. Schaffer, P.M. Gil, M.V. Mickelbart and A.W. Whiley
8 Cultivars and Rootstocks 200
J.H. Crane, G. Douhan, B.A. Faber, M.L. Arpaia, G.S. Bender, C.F. Balerdi
and A.F. Barrientos-Priego
9 Propagation 234
A.A. Ernst, A.W. Whiley and G.S. Bender
10 Biotechnology 268
F. Pliego-Alfaro, A. Barceló-Muñoz, R. López-Gómez, E. Ibarra-Laclette,
L. Herrera-Estrella, E. Palomo-Ríos, J.A. Mercado and R.E. Litz
11 Irrigation and Mineral Nutrition 301
E. Lahav, A.W. Whiley and D.W. Turner
v
vi Contents
12 Crop Management 342
A.W. Whiley, B.N. Wolstenholme and B.A. Faber
13 Foliar, Fruit and Soilborne Diseases 380
E.K. Dann, R.C. Ploetz, L.M. Coates and K.G. Pegg
14 Insect and Mite Pests 423
J.E. Peña, M.S. Hoddle, M. Aluja, E. Palevsky, R. Ripa and M. Wysoki
15 Harvesting, Packing, Postharvest Technology, Transport and Processing 489
P.J. Hofman, J. Bower and A. Woolf
Index 541
The colour plates can be found following p. 300
Contributors
M. Aluja, Instituto de Ecologia, Km. 2.5 Antigua Carretera a Coatepec No. 357, Congregación El
Haya CP 91070, Xalapa, Mexico
M.L. Arpaia, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA
92521, USA
C.F. Balerdi, University of Florida/Miami-Dade County Cooperative Extension Service, 18710 SW
288 Street, Homestead, FL 33030, USA
A. Barceló-Muñoz, IFAPA, Centro de Churriana, Cortijo de la Cruz s/n. 29140 Churriana, Málaga, Spain
A.F. Barrientos-Priego, Departamento de Fitotecnia, Universidad Autónoma Chapingo, Km. 38.5
carr. Mexico-Texcoco, Chapingo, Estado de México, CP 56230, Mexico
G.S. Bender, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Diego County, 555 Overland
Avenue, San Marcos, CA 92123, USA
J.B. Bost, Department of Tropical Plant and Soil Science, University of Hawaii, 3190 Maile Way,
Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
J. Bower, 33361 Seventh Avenue, Mission, British Columbia V2V 2E4, Canada
A.S. Chanderbali, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
L.M. Coates, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton
Park, Queensland 4102, Australia
J.H. Crane, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 18905 SW 280 Street,
Homestead, FL 33031, USA
E.K. Dann, Queensland Alliance for Agriculture and Food Innovation, University of Queensland,
Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park, Queensland 4102, Australia
G. Douhan, Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside,
CA 92521, USA
A.A. Ernst, Allesbeste Nursery, PO Box 91, Tzaneen, 0850, Limpopo Province, South Africa
B.A. Faber, University of California Cooperative Extension, Ventura County, 669 County Square
Drive, Ventura, CA 93003, USA
L.C. Garner, Horticulture and Crop Science Department, California Polytechnic State University,
San Luis Obispo, CA 93407, USA
P.M. Gil, Departamento de fruticultura y Enología, Facultad de Agronomía e Ingeniería Forestal,
Pontificia Universidad Católica de Chile, Casilla 306–22, Santiago, Chile
L. Herrera-Estrella, Langebio Cinvestav, Km. 9.6 Libramiento Norte, Carretera Irapuato-León,
36821 Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
M.S. Hoddle, Department of Entomology, University of California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA
vii
viii Contributors
P.J. Hofman, Maroochy Research Station, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry,
PO Box 5083 SCMC, Nambour, Queensland 4560, Australia
E. Ibarra-Laclette, Langebio Cinvestav, Km 9.6 Libramiento Norte, Carretera Irapuato-León,
36821 Irapuato, Guanajuato, Mexico
E. Lahav, Institute of Horticulture, ARO, The Volcani Center, PO Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
U. Lavi, Institute of Horticulture, ARO, The Volcani Center, PO Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
R.E. Litz, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 18905 SW 280 Street,
Homestead, FL 33031, USA
R. López-Gómez, Laboratorio de Fisiología Molecular de Plantas, Universidad Michoacana de
San Nicolás de Hidalgo, Edificio A1’ Ciudad Universitaria, 58060 Morelia, Michoacán, Mexico
C.J. Lovatt, Department of Botany and Plant Sciences, University of California, Riverside, CA
92521, USA
J.A. Mercado, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea “La Mayora”, Universidad
de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de
Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain
M.V. Mickelbart, Department of Horticulture and Landscape Architecture, Purdue University, 625
Agriculture Mall Drive, West Lafayette, IN 47907, USA
E. Palevsky, Institute of Plant Protection, The Volcani Center, PO Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
E. Palomo-Ríos, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea “La Mayora”, Universidad
de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de
Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain
K.G. Pegg, Department of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry, Ecosciences Precinct, Dutton Park,
Queensland 4102, Australia
J.E. Peña, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 18905 SW 280 Street,
Homestead, FL 33031, USA
Pliego-Alfaro, Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea “La Mayora”, Universidad
de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de
Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071 Málaga, Spain
R.C. Ploetz, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 18905 SW 280 Street,
Homestead, FL 33031, USA
R. Ripa, Centro de Entomología Aplicada, San Francisco s/n, Quillota, Chile
S. Salazar-García, Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarias (INIFAP),
Campo Experimental Santiago Ixcuintla, Km. 6 Entronque Carret. Internacional Mexico-Nogales,
Apdo. Postal 100, Santiago Ixcuintla, Nayarit 63300, Mexico
B. Schaffer, Tropical Research and Education Center, University of Florida, 18905 SW 280 Street,
Homestead, FL 33031, USA
N.J.H. Smith, Department of Geography, PO Box 117315, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL
32611, USA
D.E. Soltis, Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
P.S. Soltis, Museum of Natural History, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
D.W. Turner, School of Plant Biology, Faculty of Natural and Agricultural Sciences, The University
of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley WA 6009, Australia
A.W. Whiley, Sunshine Horticultural Services, Pty Ltd, 287 Dulong Road, Nambour 4560,
Queensland, Australia
B.N. Wolstenholme, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 30 Wavell Drive, Wembley, Pietermaritzburg
3201, South Africa
A. Woolf, New Zealand Institute for Plant and Food Research Limited, Mt Albert Private Bag
92169, Auckland Mail Centre 1142, Auckland, New Zealand
M. Wysoki, Institute of Plant Protection, The Volcani Center, PO Box 6, Bet Dagan 50250, Israel
Preface
Information on the biology, production and utilization of avocado has been readily accessible
for over 100 years in the form of articles in scientific and popular journals, advisory pam-
phlets, bulletins, reports and booklets. These publications generally address aspects of crop
botany, orchard management, and postharvest handling, and are usually specific to particular
regions or countries. The need for a detailed, comprehensive scientific text, international in
scope and summarizing our current knowledge of this fruit crop, was finally satisfied by the
appearance of the first edition of this book in 2002, edited by A.W. Whiley, B. Schaffer and
B.N. Wolstenholme.
Global sharing of information on avocado was advanced by the First World Avocado Congress
held in Pretoria, South Africa in 1987. This has been followed by regular congresses every 4 years
in cities in different avocado-producing countries, including Orange, California, USA (1991); Tel
Aviv, Israel (1995); Uruapan, Mexico (1999); Malaga, Spain (2003); Viña del Mar, Chile (2007);
and most recently Cairns, Australia (2011), with the 8th Congress to be held in Peru in 2015.
Proceedings of these congresses provide a rich source of scientific and marketing literature.
Producers, scientists researching avocado, academics and extension advisers, marketers and serv-
ice industry personnel have a regular opportunity to network and discuss major problems limiting
production and marketing. A remarkable collegiality has developed over the years, which has
encouraged the sharing of information, and considerable international cooperation in research
and marketing. The Hofshi Foundation provides the Internet website Avocadosource.com, regu-
larly updated in all matters relating to avocado literature, personalities and developments. The
regular world avocado congresses, plus several annual or biennial national avocado congresses,
research symposia, etc. in various avocado-producing countries have provided much of the sci-
entific literature summarized in this book. They also helped bridge the divide between English-
and Spanish-speaking countries, the latter providing most of the commercial crop and undergoing
the most rapid growth.
Avocado technology, particularly in the subtropical commercial production areas of the
world, although not exclusively so, continues to advance at a rapid rate. Concomitantly, the
volume of published research, extension and marketing literature has increased dramatically. It
is now 10 years since publication of the first edition of this textbook on avocado. In 2009 the
publishers raised the question of a second edition, following the example of the sister volume
on mango. In view of his changed circumstances, Dr Tony Whiley, now directing Sunshine
Horticultural Services in Nambour, Queensland, Australia, declined the role of senior editor for
the revised edition, but continues as an editor. The senior editor for the second edition is
ix
x Preface
Dr Bruce Schaffer of the University of Florida, Tropical Research and Education Center in
Homestead. Prof. (Emeritus) Nigel Wolstenholme (retired from the University of Natal (subse-
quently renamed the University of KuaZulu-Natal), Pietermaritzburg, South Africa), now serves
as second editor.
The volume of new literature since 2002 has necessitated a substantial revision of most chap-
ters. Although a Spanish version of the first edition was published through Ediciones Universitarias
de Valparaiso, Pontificia Universidad Católica de Valparaiso in Chile, there was also a need to
make the new edition more representative of the world industry. More authors from Spanish-
speaking countries have allowed greater access to the literature published in Spanish. Thus the
first edition had 26 authors (including 4 with Spanish as their first language) from 6 countries for
the 14 chapters; the respective numbers for the second edition are 45 authors (including 14 native
Spanish speakers) from 9 countries. Several authors from the first edition have retired, are no
longer active or are deceased.
This second edition summarizes avocado science, technology, best management practices
and postharvest aspects primarily to the end of 2011, or roughly at the conclusion of the 7th
World Avocado Congress in Australia. The substantial expansion in the literature base in the dec-
ade since 2002 has necessitated significant changes and additions to most chapters, with many
new authors and co-authors. A world view has been attempted, but inevitably the environmental
differences, and differences in levels of technology, have led to differences in approach and cur-
rent management practices between growing areas. Authors were chosen on the basis of their
scientific expertise, familiarity with the chapter topics, industry profile, and perhaps most impor-
tantly availability in terms of willingness, desire and the competing demands on their time as busy
professionals. Inevitably, reflecting the volume of easily accessed good quality scientific litera-
ture, the emphasis is on the ‘subtropical’ and rather than the ‘tropical’ avocado varieties. However,
lowland tropical avocado cultivars play an important international role and make up the major
portion of the local market in tropical and semi-tropical countries worldwide and are a source of
seedling rootstocks used in many Mediterranean, subtropical and tropical avocado-growing areas.
Furthermore, much of the information derived from research in subtropical countries or areas,
including those with a Mediterranean climate, is directly or indirectly applicable to many aspects
of tropical production. The technological dominance of a few countries with highly organized
industries and established research programmes, and often export industries, persists but is
declining.
This book is mainly targeted at avocado researchers, libraries, teachers and academics,
students, advisers, ‘cutting edge’ growers and industry support personnel. It attempts to answer
‘why’ rather than ‘how’, i.e. the focus is principles and basic understanding rather than being a
production guide. Certain fast-moving and often still controversial fields present difficulties,
and sometimes grower practice is ahead of research, a prime example being tree planting den-
sities within orchards and canopy management (specifically tree training and pruning). It also
serves to point out where our knowledge is limited, thereby underscoring the research chal-
lenges for a new generation of scientists. In this regard, there are legitimate concerns in many
countries about loss of experienced researchers, and low priority amongst administrators in
replacing them.
Any scientific text represents a summary of the current status quo at the date of publication,
and is but a snapshot in time. Inevitably much of the information soon becomes obsolete – for
fast-moving fields in particular. We also live in a world of unprecedented technological change
with the future ever more difficult to predict. Climate change and the imperative of wiser use of
the Earth’s resources will increasingly impact agriculture and orcharding. Basic principles how-
ever, in contrast to current practices, are more durable. The editors recognize that very few will
read all the chapters – they will pick the chapter(s) and sections that are of greatest interest to
them. This is facilitated by the inevitable overlap and repetition between chapters, as well as dif-
ferences in approach. We have cross-referenced between chapters, to guide readers to further
discussion of particular topics.