Table Of ContentBellona Report Volume 3 - 2001
The Arctic Nuclear Challenge
Nils Bøhmer Aleksandr Nikitin Igor Kudrik Thomas Nilsen Michael H.McGovern Andrey Zolotkov
Published by:
The Bellona Foundation
Norway: Murmansk:
P.O.Box 2141,Grünerløkka P.O.Box 4310
NO-0505 Oslo, 183038 Murmansk
Norway Russia
[email protected] [email protected]
www.bellona.no www.bellona.ru
St.Petersburg USA
P.O.Box 4 P.O.Box 53060,NW
191 023 St.Petersburg Washington,DC 20009
Russia USA
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This report is also available in Russian.
Copying of the report,or part of the report,is permitted
when source is stated (Source:Bellona).
Photos:Thomas Nilsen,Nils Bøhmer,Igor Kudrik,Bellona,
The Northern fleet Museum (archive),Aleksandr Raube,
Tomaz Kizney,Knut Bry,Andrey Zolotkov,Scanpix,Victor
Tereshkin and Den norsk-russiske ekspertgruppen for
undersøkelser av radioaktiv forurensning i de nordlige
områder.
Keywords: Nuclear waste, radioactive contamination, The publication of this report is sponsored by:
nuclear submarines, nuclear icebreakers, Kola nuclear
power plant, the Russian Northern fleet, Murmansk Danish Environmental Protection Agency
Shipping Company. United States Environmental Protection Agency
Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs
ISBN 82-993138-9-9
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Although the information in this document has been Gro Harlem Brundtlands Miljøstiftelse
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Protection Agency under assistance agreement X828201- Norges Råfisklag
01-0 to Bellona USA,it may not necessarily reflect the Norwegian Russian Trade AS
views of the Agency and no official endorsment should be Sigval Bergesen d.y og Hustru Nanki’s Almennyttige Stiftelse
inferred. Stiftelsen UNI
Bellona Report Volume 3 - 2001
The Arctic Nuclear Challenge
Nils Bøhmer Alexander Nikitin Igor Kurdik Thomas Nilsen Michael H.McGovern Andrey Zolotov
Preface
This is the third Bellona report on potential sources of is important to maintain a strong international co-
radioactive contamination of the Arctic.While the two operation with Russia in nuclear safety projects.Today,
former reports (1994 and 1996) mainly focused on iden- the political willingness to assist in nuclear waste cleanup
tifying the sources,this report also present solutions to projects in Northwest Russia is greater than the ability to
secure spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste.In sup- implement those projects.Bellona hopes that this report
port of the ongoing efforts to safely secure this waste, will assist in concretising this ability by carrying out proj-
this report describes various new projects proposed by ects such as a new intermediate storage for spent nuclear
Bellona in order to solve the problems of further fuel at the Kola Peninsula.
radioactive contamination and the ensuing adverse health
effects to the people living in the Arctic areas. The contents of this report will be redesigned into a
web-friendly version and will be updated continuously.
Most of the nuclear safety challenges in the Arctic are The updates will track all of the developments and
related to the legacies of the cold war.The spent nuclear changes in the issues described in this report to provide
fuel storage sites in Andreyeva Bay and in Gremikha,the comprehensive up-to-date information for decision-mak-
laid-up nuclear submarines and the large volume of ers and the general public.Check www.bellona.org for
radioactive waste at the bases and naval yards along the updates.
cost of the Kola Peninsula are the legacy left to our gen-
eration from the past decades.International co-operation Bellona thanks the United States Environmental
in the work to secure nuclear waste generated during the Protection Agency,the Danish Environmental Protection
arms race must replace the earlier mistrust that raged Agency,the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs,and
between the nations. other private corporations and foundations for their
financial support to make this report.
Nuclear safety is not a task solely for officials,state agen-
cies and private business.The civil society plays the most The authors would also like to acknowledge the many
important role in providing public support and establish- contributors to this report.Both state officials,private
ing the right priorities when projects are discussed and industry,environmental groups,researchers and colleges
new solutions must be found.As a pragmatic non-govern- within the Bellona Foundation have assisted in gathering
mental organisation,Bellona is searching for solutions to and processing the information in the report.We have
head off the problems of potential Arctic radioactive con- especially benefited from the help of our colleges Thomas
tamination.It is important to protest against the current Jandl in the United States,Sergey Filippov,who came up
radioactive contamination coming from the British repro- with the idea for this report, Luba Nikiforova, Vlad
cessing plant in Sellafield,but it is equally important to Nikiforov and Irina Rudaya for translations to Russian
propose projects aimed at preventing future contamina- and Jennifer C.Chisholm-Høibråten for correcting our
tion coming from the retired nuclear submarines and English.
rundown storage sites for spent nuclear fuel at the Kola Graphic design and layout has been made by
Peninsula. Thomas Hammarström, Andreas Fjeld and Magnus
Anderssen.
Through our offices in Oslo,Murmansk,St Petersburg,
and Washington,D.C.,we have worked to establish con-
tacts and mutual understanding between Russian,
European and American authorities and corporations.
Our offices in Brussels and Washington,D.C.have been
working for years to establish a political understanding in
the European Union and in the United States as to why it Oslo,June 13th 2000.
The Authors:
Nils Bøhmer (1967) has been working as a nuclear
physicist in Bellona since 1993.He co-authored the two
former Bellona reports on nuclear safety issues in Russia.
He holds a degree from the University of Oslo and was
formerly with the Norwegian Radiation Protection
Authority.
[email protected]
Igor Kudrik (1974) was the head of Bellona’s office in This report is a part of the Bellona report series on
Murmansk from 1994 til 1996.Since then he has been nuclear issues in Russia.The two former reports pub-
working with the Bellona’s office in Norway. He co- lished in 1994 and 1996 are available on the web:
authored the Bellona report about the Russian Northern Report 1-94 "Sources to Radioactive Contamination in
Fleet in 1996. Murmansk and Arkhangelsk Counties"
[email protected] www.bellona.no/1-94/
Report 2-96 "The Russian Northern Fleet – Sources of
Michael McGovern(1965) works as a research analyst Radioactive Contamination"
in the Washington D.C.area.He worked at the Centre for www.bellona.no/2-96/
Verification Research,an arms control and threat reduc- This report,3-01 "The Arctic Nuclear Challenge"
tion research organization,and he previously contributed www.bellona.no/3-01/
to environmental reports about the US nuclear weapons
complex.He received a M.P.A at Princeton University in The Bellona Foundation
1994, and a M.S., Physics, from the University of The Bellona Foundation was founded as anNGO in 1986.
Massachusetts in 1991. The Foundation is a science based environmental organi-
sation whose main objective is to combat problems of
Aleksandr Nikitin(1953) has been a Bellona associate environmental degradation,pollution-induced dangers to
since 1994 and joined the staff in 1995.He co-authored human health and the ecological impacts of economic
the Bellona report about the Russian Northern Fleet. development strategies.
Today,he heads the Bellona branch office in St Petersburg
and is a chairman of the Environmental Right Center.He Bellona aims to present feasible solutions with the least
is a retired captain of first rank and served as engineer on impact on human activity.Bellona strives to inform the
nuclear submarines with the Russian Northern Fleet until public,and in particular lawmakers,opinion leaders and
1985. From 1985 until 1992, he worked at the the media about environmental hazards,and helps draft
Department of Nuclear Safety in the Ministry of Defence. policy responses to these problems.
[email protected]
Bellona works towards international co-operation and
Thomas Nilsen (1968) has been working in Bellona legislation to protect nature and improve the environ-
since 1992. He co-authored the two former Bellona ment,in support of the public's right to enjoy clean air,
reports on nuclear safety issues in Russia. Before he soil and water,and to guarantee the provision of correct
joined Bellona he worked as a journalist covering envi- information about the threats against the environment.
ronmental issues in the Russian northern regions.
[email protected] Bellona has been involved in environmental questions
concerning North-West Russia and the Arctic since 1989.
Andrey Zolotkov(1951) has been working as the head With our reports on nuclear safety issues we hope to
of the regional organisation Bellona Murmansk since contribute to solutions to the challenges and public awer-
1998.From 1989 till 1991 he took the position in the ness about the nuclear safety problems in the Arctic.
Deputy Counsil in the USSR.He co-authored the first Established in 1994,our branch office in Murmansk has
official report on dumping of radioactive waste in the been working intensivly towards this goal.
Barents- and Kara Seas in 1993 (White book),and con-
sulted Bellona with its first report Sources to Radioactive You will find more information about Bellona Foundation
Contamination in Murmansk and Arkhangelsk counties in at our web-site www.bellona.org Information in Russian
1994.He also works in the Murmansk Shipping Company. about Bellona Murmansk and St Petersburg is avalible at
[email protected] www.bellona.ru
CONTENTS SOURCES OF PRESENT ARCTIC
CONTAMINATION 47
PREFACE 4.1.DUMPING OF RADIOACTIVE
WASTE AND SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL 48
CONTENTS
4.1.1Dumping practice of the Northern
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
Fleet and the Murmansk Shipping
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Company 48
THE RUSSIAN NORTHERN FLEET 1
4.2 NUCLEAR WEAPONS TESTING 50
1.1.NUCLEAR NAVAL VESSELS 3
4.2.1 Novaya Zemlya 50
1.1.1.First generation submarines 4
4.2.2 Atmospheric testing 51
1.1.2.Second generation submarines 4
4.2.3.Underground testing 53
1.1.3.Third generation submarines 5
4.2.4 Underwater testing 54
1.1.4.Nuclear powered surface vessels 5
4.2.5 Civil nuclear explosions 54
4.3 REPROCESSING INDUSTRY 54
1.2.STATE AGENCIES RESPONSIBILITIES 6
4.3.1 Reprocessing in Siberia 54
1.2.1.Transfer of Responsibility to
4.3.2 European reprocessing 55
Minatom 6
1.2.2.Nuclear Regulatory 7
4.4 CONTAMINATION 55
4.4.1 Contamination in the Barents and
1.3.DECOMMISSIONING OF NUCLEAR
Kara Seas 55
SUBMARINES 8
4.42 Land contamination 56
1.3.1.Laid up submarines environmental
risks 8
PROJECTS FOR SECURING
1.3.2.Decommissioning process 9
NUCLEAR WASTE 57
1.3.3.CTR funding 9
5.1 NORWAY'S PLAN OF ACTION 58
1.3.4.Minatom’s engagement 9
1.3.5.Infrastructure capabilities 10
5.2 THE INDUSTRIAL GROUP 59
1.4.SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT 12
5.3 MURMANSK 80-TON CASK
1.4.1.Andreeva Bay 13
PROJECT/THE LOTTA PROJECT 59
1.4.2.Gremikha Naval Base 15
1.4.3.Service ships for spent nuclear fuel 17
5.4 RUSSIAN MINATOM PROPOSALS 59
1.4.4.Transportation of spent nuclear fuel 18
5.5 ARCTIC MILITARY ENVIRONMENTAL
1.5.MANAGEMENT OF SOLID RADIOACTIVE
COOPERATION 61
WASTE AND REACTOR COMPARTMENTS 19
1.5.1.Management of reactor
5.6 MURMANSK INITIATIVE 61
compartments 20
1.5.2.Solid radioactive waste at
5.7 UNITED STATES PROJECTS 62
naval bases and shipyards 23
5.7.1 Cooperative Threat Reduction (CTR) 62
1.5.3.Liquid radioactive waste at naval
5.7.2 Strategic Offensive Arms
bases,shipyards,special tankers and
Elimination (SOAE) 62
nuclear support ships 24
5.7.3 Safeguarding Nuclear Materials 64
5.7.4 Future Issues 64
CIVILIAN NUCLEAR VESSELS 27
2.1.ATOMFLOT 28
5.8 THE EUROPEAN UNION AND THE
2.2.NUCLEAR ICEBREAKERS 29
LEPSE PROJECT 65
2.3.ACCIDENTS AND EMERGENCY SITUATIONS 29
2.3.1.Nuclear icebreaker Lenin 29
REGIONAL STORAGE FACILITIES
2.3.2.Neutron source theft 31
ON KOLA 67
2.3.3.1993 fresh nuclear fuel theft 31
6.1 TRANSPORT OF SPENT NUCLEAR
FUEL TO MAYAK 68
2.4.HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE WASTE 31
2.4.1.Nuclear service ships 32
6.2 SPENT NUCLEAR FUEL MANAGEMENT 69
2.4.2.Imandra 32
2.4.3.Lotta 34
6.3 RADIOACTIVE WASTE STORAGE 69
2.4.4.Serebryanka 35
2.4.5.Lepse 35
6.4 CRITERIA FOR STORAGE OF SPENT
2.4.6.Volodarsky 37
NUCLEAR FUEL 70
6.4.1 Location of the storage facilities 71
KOLA NUCLEAR POWER PLANT 39
6.4.2 Possible locations 72
3.1.TECHNICAL INFORMATION 40
3.1.1.Insufficiencies 41
NUCLEAR SUBMARINE INDEX 75
3.1.2.Disturbances and accidents
during operation 42
LIST OF PHOTOS 103
3.1.3.Safety assessments 43
REFERENCES 105
3.2.RADIOACTIVE WASTE AND SPENT FUEL 43
List of abbreviations
alfa-particles two protons and two neutrons
gamma-radiation high energy electromagnetic
radiation
alfa-activity from radioactive sources emitting
a-particles
gamma-activity gamma-activity,from radioactive sources
emitting g-radiation
Bq becquerel,unit for radioactivity; 1
Bq = 1 disintegration per second
TBq terabecquerel = 1012Bq
PBq petabecquerel = 1015Bq
m metre
km kilometres,1,000 meters,1 km =
0,62 miles
m3 cubicmetres
t metric tonnes,1,000 kg
VVER-440 Soviet-design nuclear reactor,pres
surised water reactor
RBMK Soviet-design nuclear reactor,
graphite-moderated reactor
AEA Technology British nuclear company
AMEC Arctic Military Environmental Co-
operation,between Russia,Norway
and USA
BNFL British Nuclear Fuel,British nuclear
company
CTR Co-operative Threat Reduction-
programme
DG XI EU’s Directorate-General for
Environment,Nuclear Safety and
Civil Protection
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
(United States)
EU European Union
GAN Gozatomnadzor,Russian radiation
protection authority
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
MinAtom Russian Ministry of Atomic Energy
MSCo Murmansk Shipping Company
SGN French nuclear company
SKB Swedish nuclear company
TACIS EU’s programme for Technical
Assistance to the Commonwealth
of Independent States
VNIPIET All-Russia Research
Institute for Industrial Technology
SSN Attack submarine,nuclear powered
SSBN Strategic ballistic missile submarine,
nuclear powered
SMS Special mission submarines
PWR Pressurised water reactor
LMCR Liquid metal cooled reactors
Executive summary
The handling and haphazard storage of radioactive waste Even though around 38,000 TBq of radioactive waste and
and spent nuclear fuel constitute two of the most major spent nuclear fuel have been dumped in the Arctic seas,
environmental and social challenges in the Murmansk and the small radioactive contamination that can be detected
Archangelsk region, both now and in the foreseeable today in actual fact originates from other sources.The
future.Spent nuclear fuel from the Northern Fleet and main sources are the atmospheric nuclear testing in the
the civilian nuclear icebreaker fleet has been stored in 1950s and 1960s,the Chernobyl accident in 1986 and the
temporary storage facilities on land or on board various continued releases from the Sellafield reprocessing plant
types of vessels since the early 1960s.Less than half of the in United Kingdom.It is worth mentioning that the pres-
spent nuclear fuel that has accumulated over the years ent contamination is low,and the typical level of radioac-
from naval reactors on the Kola Peninsula has been trans- tivity in fish meat is about 0,25 Bq/kg.
ported to the Mayak reprocessing facility.
To prevent future pollution from the overfilled and run-
In recent years,Russian methods for the handling,stor- down storage facilities for radioactive waste and spent
age,transport and deposition of spent nuclear fuel and nuclear fuel in north-west Russia,Bellona encourages and
radioactive waste have come under increasing criticism supports the construction of new waste treatment facili-
throughout Russia and the world.Practices of the Russian ties in the Kola region.These facilities should provide the
military in handling nuclear waste,especially spent nuclear necessary infrastructure to handle and prepare radioac-
fuel,are particularly criticized.Not only are standard safe- tive waste and spent nuclear fuel for safe storage.The
ty measures routinely neglected,but in addition a firm lid facilities must also include a safe temporary storage for
of secrecy has blocked any constructive approaches for radioactive waste and spent nuclear fuel for the next 50
solving the problems.The consequences are particularly years.
apparent on the Kola Peninsula;indeed there is no other
place in the world where such large amounts of spent For a long time,disagreements over taxation and liability
nuclear fuel are so improperly stored as at the Kola naval issues have led to delays in the development of the vari-
bases. ous international projects.For example,it remains uncer-
tain who would be responsible in the event of an accident
The spent nuclear fuel which is temporarily stored at in Russia involving equipment manufactured in another
Andreyeva Bay and Gremikha on the Kola peninsula,as country.Furthermore,the Russian authorities have levied
well as the fuel that remains inside the reactors on board import duties of up to 50% on equipment and services
retired nuclear submarines or aboard various storage paid for by other countries.
vessels,must be properly secured and moved to a new,
environmentally safe storage. In May 1998,a bilateral framework agreement between
Norway and Russia was signed through the Norwegian
In the Northern Fleet today there are less than 40 Plan of Action for Nuclear Safety Issues.This agreement
nuclear submarines in active service and some 71 retired came into being to resolve the taxation and liability issues
submarines still containing their spent nuclear fuel. In for a number of specific projects,namely the Lepse proj-
total there is fuel from about 250 submarine reactors in ect,upgrading nuclear safety at the Kola NPP,upgrade of
onshore storage facilities,storage ships or laid-up sub- the Murmansk liquid radioactive waste treatment facility
marines.The total amount of fuel is around 100 tons.At and other projects covered by the framework agreement.
least 32 nuclear submarines have been dismantled at the But the framework agreement does not encompass
five shipyards Nerpa, Zvezdochka, Sevmash, Shkval and multinational projects which were to have been imple-
Sevmorput.There are at least 35 reactor sections laid up mented with the participation of other countries.This
in Sayda Bay,all of which must be properly secured as means that the question of taxation and liability for these
radioactive waste. In addition comes another 14,000 projects must be settled separately.
cubic meters of radioactive waste.
As a follow up to this bilateral agreement,much effort has
Murmansk Shipping Company (MSCo) currently operates been put into the Multinational Nuclear Environmental
six nuclear icebreakers and one nuclear powered con- Program for the Russian Federation (MNEPR).The goal of
tainer ship.MSCo also has two laid up nuclear icebreak- this multinational co-operation would be to obtain a
ers.About 20 to 25 nuclear reactor cores are stored on binding,general agreement on legal protection covering
board vessels at MSCo’s own base Atomflot. In addition all countries willing to participate in the reduction of
comes radioactive waste from regular operations. nuclear dangers in Russia.But so far,no agreement has
been signed.
At Kola Nuclear Power Plant (NPP) there are four VVER
440 type reactors currently in operation.The two oldest Once signed there should be one less obstacle to start
(Kola 1 & 2) have been identified as some of the world’s and complete international projects. One of the most
most risky reactors.On the order of 8,200 cubic meters pressing projects would be to construct interim storage
of solid radioactive waste and 7,000 cubic meters of liq- facilities for spent nuclear fuel and radioactive waste,
uid radioactive waste are currently being stored at Kola including necessary infrastructure to handle damaged
NPP in addition to some 1,300 tons of spent nuclear fuel. spent nuclear fuel.
Andreeva-Bay Malaya Lopatka Barents Sea
Bolshaya Lopatka
Nerpichya
Zaozersk
Ara Bay
Vidyaevo
Iceland Ura-bay
Sayda-Bay
Russia Nerpa Skalisty
EU Olenya Bay
Snezhnogorsk
Polyarny
Severomorsk
Naval base
Shipyard Roslyakovo
Spent-fuel
Radioactive waste Murmansk
www.bellona.org
Description:radioactive contamination and the ensuing adverse health effects to the people living in the Arctic areas. Most of the nuclear safety challenges in the
