THE ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF HONEY 2. Variation in the potency of the antibacterial activity ...

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THE ANTIBACTERIAL ACTIVITY OF HONEY
2. Variation in the potency of the antibacterial activity
PETER C MOLAN
Department of Biological Sciences, University of Waikato,
Private Bag 3105, Hamilton, New Zealand
Introduction
Honey is gaining acceptance by the medical profession for use as an antibacterial
agent for the treatment of ulcers and bed sores, and other surface infections resulting
from burns and wounds4,135. In many cases it is being used with success on infections
not responding to standard antibiotic and antiseptic therapy. Its effectiveness in
rapidly clearing up infection and promoting healing is not surprising in light of the
large number of research findings on its antibacterial activity, covered in Part 1 of this
review (Bee World 73(1): 5-28, 1992).

None of the reports in the medical literature, however, mention any selection of the
honey used for the treatment of infections. Although it is recognized that honey
has antibacterial activity, it is not generally realized that there is a very large variation in
the antibacterial potency of different honeys, and that the antibacterial properties can
be easily lost by inappropriate handling and storage of honey. Part 2 of this review
covers the research that has been done on these aspects: giving regard to these
findings should result in a more rational usage of honey in medicine and allow its full
potential as an antibacterial agent be achieved.

Variation in antibacterial activity
A common feature of all of the reports in the medical literature on the use of honey as
an antibacterial agent is that no consideration is given to the selection of type of
honey for therapeutic use. Aristotle, c 350 BC6, and Dioscorides, c AD 5046, rec-
ommended that honey collected in specific regions and seasons (and therefore pre-
sumably from different floral sources) be used for the treatment of different ail-
ments. Such considerations have continued into present-day folk medicine: the
strawberry-tree (Arbutus unedo) honey of Sardinia is valued for its therapeutic
properties38; in India lotus (Nelumbium sceciosum) honey is said to be a panacea for
eye diseases39. In modern clinical practice, however, these views have gone unnoticed,
as have the laboratory findings of large differences in the antibacterial potency of honey
from different floral sources.

Degree of variance observed

In almost all studies in which more than one type of honey has been used, differences
in the antibacterial activity of the honeys have been observed. The degree of
difference observed has in some cases been very large, and in many others where it has
been smaller this possibly is the result of a more limited range of testing rather
than of less variance in the activity of the honeys. In many studies the antibacterial
activity of different honeys has been compared by way of the inhibine
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number determined by the method devised by Dold and Witzenhausen for such
comparisons29.

Dold and Witzenhausen coined the term 'inhibine number' in 195529 to describe
the degree of dilution to which a honey will retain its antibacterial activity. This is
a term that has been widely used since as a measure of the antibacterial activity of
honey. The inhibine number involves a scale of 1 to 5 representing sequential dilutions
of honey in 5% steps, from 25% to 5%. There have since been various minor
modifications to this method so that the actual concentration corresponding to the
inhibine number reported may vary. One modification has been to estimate fractional
inhibine numbers by visual assessment of partial inhibition on the agar plate with
the concentration of honey that just allows growth1,31,108. Another modification96
has been the use of double-strength nutrient in the dilution mixture to keep the
concentration of nutrient constant throughout the series: in the original method of Dold
and Witzenhausee this varied considerably. The effect of differences between
methods on the comparability of the inhibine numbers from different studies has
been discussed by White et al127.

In most of the studies measuring the inhibine number of honeys, activity has been
found to range over the five-fold difference in concentration in the dilution series1,52, 61,
94, 96, 121, 122, 127. 126, 129, 130, 132 In three other studies21,73,108 activity was found to range
.
over a four-fold difference in concentration in the dilution series. With some honeys not
active at the highest concentration tested in some of the studies, and others still
active at the greatest dilutions, it is possible that if greater and lesser degrees of
dilution had been included in the testing then a wider range of activities would have
been detected. One study using a wider range of dilutions (honey from
50-0.25%) found the minimum inhibitory concentrations of the honeys tested to
range from 25% to 0.25%3. Another, testing from 50% to 0.4% found the minimum
inhibitory concentrations to range from greater than 50% (i.e. not active at 50%) to
1.5%35. Other studies with wide ranges tested also found some honeys without activity
at the highest concentration tested, and other honey with activity at the lowest
concentration tested: the ranges were from 20-0.6%14 and 50-1.5%20,57.
When the data are examined, activities are seen to be fairly well spread over these
ranges. Duisberg and Warnecke31 plotted the distribution of the activity of 131 sam-
ples of honey tested, and found that it deviated from a normal Gaussian distribution
because of the large number of samples with low activity. (In 7% of the samples
the activity was below the level of detection.) They attributed this to
destruction of activity by exposure to heat and light, and estimated that 50% of the
samples had lost more than half of their original activity, and 22% had lost more than
three-quarters. Another study of 345 samples of honeys4 also found a large number
with low activity (36% of the samples had activity near or below the level of
detection), the rest having almost a Gaussian distribution over a twenty-fold range
of activity.

Association with floral source
Although some have concluded that honey from certain plants has better antibac-
terial activity than that from others, there is not enough evidence for such definite
conclusions to be justified. Some of these conclusions are based on data from very
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FIG. 4. Honey bee foraging on manuka flowers in New Zealand.

small numbers of samples. Other studies, though, have shown that there can be a
large variation in the activity of different samples from the same plant source. Because
of this, and because of the likelihood of misidentification of the source, the
impossibility of getting a truly unifloral honey, and of variation associated with instability
of the activity (discussed later), small numbers of samples cannot be taken as being
representative of a particular source of honey. Even large-scale studies produce data of
limited usefulness in this respect: because there are so many different plant species
from which honey is produced, not many can be looked at from each. However, honeys
from some sources have been studied in large enough numbers or have been included
in enough different studies for some trends to be noted.

There have been several studies in which dark honey from the conifer forests of the
mountainous regions of central Europe have been found to have particularly high
activity14, 16, 17, 24, 25, 35, 52, 61, 81, 94, 103. This honey is not from a nectar source, but from
honeydew, produced by aphids sucking the sap from the leaves of the trees. Honey from
sweet chestnut (Castanea sativa), a nectar source, has also been reported to have high
activity14,35 but it is dark in colour and thus is considered to be partly derived
from honeydew14. Another dark coloured honey, from manuka
(Leptospermum scoparium) in New Zealand (fig. 4), has also been found to have a
high level of activity14,61,77,94. Roth et a1.90 commented on the association of high activity
with dark coloured honeys in their study of Canadian honeys. Heather (Erica spp.)
honey, which has a fairly dark colour, has been found to have a high level of
antibacterial activity in one study4, but a fairly low14,94 or low35,73 level of activity in
others. Rape (Brassica napus) honey has also been found to have a
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FIG. 5. Sampling broth cultures to measure the rate of bacterial growth with different
concentrations of honey added.
high level of activity in one study4, but a fairly low94 or low35,61,77 level of
activity in others. In several studies linden (Tilia cordata) honey has been found
to have a fairly high level of activity14,61,77,94, but a fairly low level of activity in
others35,52. Clover (Trifolium spp.) honey has been consistently found to have low
activity4,14, and cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) honey high activity103,106,128.
Reasons for variance
The water activity of honey varies relatively little, and is not of much importance in
the antibacterial effect of the dilute solutions of honey used to study the antibacterial
activity of honey. Although the acidity of honey varies considerably, this too is likely to
be of little consequence when the honey is in dilute solution in nutrient broth for testing
its effect on bacterial cultures, as the broth buffers the acidity (fig. 5). The major
variations seen in overall antibacterial activity are due to variation in the level of
hydrogen peroxide achieved, and in some cases to the level of non-peroxide factors.
The latter was found to be responsible for much of the activity in honeys with high
levels of antibacterial activity in a study of 64 samples72. The content of non-peroxide
factors is obviously related to the floral source, and sometimes it can account for the
major part of the antibacterial activity in a honey, as is found with manuka honey4.
The level of hydrogen peroxide achieved can also be related to the floral source, as
components from some floral sources can affect both the production and the
destruction of hydrogen peroxide (discussed below). There is a dynamic equilibrium:
the level of hydrogen peroxide depends upon the balance between the rate of its
production and the rate of its destruction128.
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Hydrogen peroxide obviously must be degraded, or else full-strength honey would
contain substantial amounts of it, and any dilution of honey would eventually
achieve inhibitory levels.

From the first work demonstrating that hydrogen peroxide is responsible for
antibacterial activity in honey, it was realized that hydrogen peroxide is destroyed by
components of honey. When testing Staphylococcus a ureus for its susceptibility to added
hydrogen peroxide, it was found that higher levels had to be added to achieve an
inhibitory effect if honey was present'. Hydrogen peroxide was found to rapidly
disappear when added to dilute honey, and, except in samples accumulating very high
levels, the level of hydrogen peroxide accumulated from enzymatic action was seen to
decline with time128.

Of the factors possibly involved in the destruction of hydrogen peroxide, an obvious
component to consider was catalase. This enzyme had long been thought to be
present in honey97, and was unequivocally shown to be present by Scheparte in
1966. Catalase comes from the pollen and nectar of certain plants; more coming from
the nectar33. Honeys from some floral sources have been found to have very high
levels of catalase, and these honeys accumulate low levels of hydrogen peroxide: the
ones accumulating high levels of hydrogen peroxide had low levels of catalase33,35.
There was some deviation from the inverse correlation seen in these studies, but this
could well have been the result of non-peroxide antibacterial factors giving higher levels
of activity, or prior denaturation of glucose oxidase giving lower levels. The latter
would probably have been the explanation for the group of honeys with low
antibacterial activity and low catalase activity found in another study of 28 samples100.
Excluding this group, in this study a highly significant inverse correlation was found
between catalase activity and accumulation of hydrogen peroxide.

Not all the variation, however, in the destruction of hydrogen peroxide associated with
floral sources is due to the plants contributing catalase to the honeys. It has been found
that the disappearance of hydrogen peroxide added to honey occurs even if honey is
boiled beforehand to inactivate the catalase, indicating that a chemical degradation
is involved as well as the enzymatic destruction127. This could well be the
metal-catalysed reaction with ascorbic acid discussed earlier

The floral source can influence the production as well as the destruction of hydrogen
peroxide, thus affecting the balance between these and lowering the level of
accumulation. Very large differences have been found between honeys from different
floral sources in the thermal stability of their glucose oxidase content129. A similar
finding has been made-in respect of the sensitivity of glucose oxidase to denaturation
by light, a photosensitizing component responsible for the photo-oxidation of the
enzyme being partially characterized in this study130. Of course, the influence of
these factors on the antibacterial activity depends on the degree of exposure of honey
samples to heat and light before they are assayed, but it is likely that much of the
variation seen in the antibacterial activity of honeys reflects the history of those
honeys. The level of antibacterial activity in a honey has for a long time been taken
as an indication of whether or not a honey has been subjected to heating in its
processing, although with the realization that it depends on other factors as well, this
measure is no longer recommended129.
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Bactericidal or bacteriostatic action?
Duration of bacteriostasis
Most of the reports on the antibacterial activity of honey do not allow a distinction
to be made between whether a honey is killing the bacteria or whether it is just
stopping the bacteria from growing. Although no growth may have been seen over
the period of observation, sometimes up to four days, in the absence of other evi-
dence this only can be taken to be a bacteriostatic action, even if termed a bac-
tericidal action by some authors14,67,81. A bactericidal action only can be
concluded to have been observed in those studies where subculturing in a
honey-free medium after initial exposure to honey shows no subsequent growth,
which is what is recorded as bactericidal action in table 1. There may have been a
bactericidal action in additional instances, but this cannot be known without the
additional experimentation needed to demonstrate it.
Limited experimentation in these studies may also have left instances of bacteriosta-
sis unobserved. In most cases a bacteriostatic action was demonstrated by lack of
visible growth at the end of a period of incubation, a single observation being
made at the end. It is likely, especially in the many studies with a long period of
incubation, that growth would have ceased well before the observation was made:
in batch culture, exhaustion of nutrient or build-up of toxic end-products can limit
growth in quite a short time. In these cases a partially inhibited culture could 'catch
up' an uninhibited control at this point of limited growth before the growth was
observed. It is also possible that complete inhibition of growth could have gone
unobserved in these studies: in other studies involving monitoring throughout incu-
bation there is evidence of bacteria overcoming the antibacterial activity of honey
after a period of inhibition25,52,101. However, the period was found to be longer
with higher concentrations of honey, and seven major wound-infecting species of
bacteria were found to be kept in a state of complete inhibition for 8 h if the
concentration of honey was increased to between 3% and 10%13131.

Complete inhibition of growth maintained over a long period is obviously an impor-
tant feature in controlling infections. Also of relevance is that if bacteria are kept
in a state of bacteriostasis for a long period, their capacity to recover is lost109. In
most of the cases of complete inhibition listed in table 1, the period of study over
which this was maintained was 18-24 h.
Bactericidal action of honey
Whether or not honey has a bactericidal action appears to be very much a matter
of the time of exposure of the cells to the honey. A gradual decline over 24 h was
seen in the number of viable cells of several species of bacteria killed by 10%
honey25. In another study84 a bactericidal action was seen against Escherichia
with 17% honey after 24 h, but 48 h was required for bactericidal action with 9%
honey: with S. aureus 24 h was required for bactericidal action with 33% honey,
48 h was required for bactericidal action with 25% honey, and 96 h for bactericidal
action with 9% honey. Another factor which contributes to this variation is dif-
ferences in the susceptibility of the species being used for testing. The action of
20% honey was found to be bactericidal on only two out of six species of bacteria
tested52. Observation of the bactericidal action of 50% honey on 12 species20
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revealed that Gram-positive species generally were the first to be killed, starting to
die after 1 h of exposure, with complete killing after 3-24 h. Gram-negative
species generally began to die after 4-6 h, complete killing taking up to 48 h. A
comparison of ten species of bacteria exposed to eight different honeys at 50%
concentration57 found that the time required for a complete bactericidal action
ranged from 3 to 48 h, there being four-fold differences between the honeys, and
larger differences between the species. Another study69 also showed that the time
required for bactericidal action depends on the species of bacteria, and on the con-
centration of honey: E. coli with 50% honey grew for 2 h then began to decline in
the number of viable cells; S. aureus showed a decline by 1 h, with complete killing
after 4 h with 50% honey, but only partial killing by 5 h with 25% honey.
An incomplete bactericidal action in the time allowed would have been taken as no
bactericidal action by some investigators who simply looked for growth after exposure:
a small number of surviving cells would give this. Thus it was concluded that there
was no bactericidal action on 6 species by 5-10% honey over a period of 5 h50.
Likewise it was concluded that there was no bactericidal action on S. aureus by 15%
honey over a period of 5 h127, and by 29% honey over a period of 36 h131. Also with
11 species exposed to 10% honey for 8 h it was concluded that the action was only
bacteriostatic54, but it was noted that on subsequent examination there was
evidence of damage to the bacterial cells.
It is known that vegetative cells of bacteria will die off slowly at sub-optimal levels of
water activity (a )76. Even so, in full strength honey this can take up to 34 days for
w
Salmonella at 18-20°C115, and up to 2 years at 10°C116. However, in another study95
much shorter times were found to be needed (up to 3 days at room temperature).
Differences in the composition of the honeys used could well account for these
differences in findings: different times were found to be required for different honeys
to kill a particular species within the same experiment in two studies95,105. Differences in
the composition of the honeys used could also account for differences in conclusions on
whether the antibacterial action of honey is bacteriostatic or bactericidal. In several
studies14,20,40,112,131 only some of the honeys tested had a bactericidal activity at the
concentrations used.
It may just be a matter of longer times or higher concentrations being required for
bactericidal activity to be seen: many bacteriostatic substances are bactericidal at
higher concentrations109. Low a may greatly influence the microbicidal effect of
w
other factors76, thus these factors may be of more consequence in honeys at high
concentrations.
Although hydrogen peroxide gives bacteriostasis with S. aureus at 0.29 mmo1/1 or
lower8,23,127, it has been found that 29 mmo1/1 hydrogen peroxide is required to
kill E. coli and S. aureus in 1 and 8.8 mmol/l to achieve a kill rate of 80% in 1 h with
seven strains of bacteria114. The quantities of hydrogen peroxide that are produced in
honey (discussed earlier) are unlikely to accumulate to such levels, but could be high
enough in some honeys to be bactericidal over a longer period of exposure, especially
with the influence of a low a and with potentiation by metal ions and ascorbic acid. The
w
presence of plant-derived bactericidal factors in some honeys, helped by the low a
w
may also account for some honeys being bactericidal.
Whether or not honey is bactericidal is of little practical significance however. Some of
the antibiotics in common use in medical practice have only a bacteriostatic
66
Action104. Complete bacteriostasis, maintained by regular application of honey,
would be sufficient to allow the healing process to work successfully. The fairly rapid
clearing up of infections that is found to occur under a dressing of
honey11,15,32,48 may be a result of bactericidal action from prolonged exposure, or
possibly be a result of the natural defence system being more successful with
multiplication of bacterial cells held in check.
Stability of antibacterial activity
The instability of honey inhibine was first recognized in 1937 by Dold et al.27, who
found that it was destroyed by heating and by exposure to light. These observations
have since been confirmed by numerous other researchers, but there have been
differences in the degree of instability reported.
Sensitivity to heat
The initial report (Dold et al.27) on the loss of antibacterial activity on exposure of
honey to heat was of complete loss of inhibition by 17% honey after exposure of
50% honey to 100°C for 5 min, 80°C for 10 min, or 56°C for 30 min. However, this did
not mean that antibacterial activity was lost completely: if the unheated honey had
been of just high enough activity to inhibit growth when at 17%, not much activity
would have to be lost on heating for inhibition no longer to be seen. This also
applies to the similar finding of Pothmane that exposure of honey to 100°C for 5
min or 56°C for 1 h caused complete loss of inhibition by 17% honey. In later reports
the researchers used a dilution series for the assay of activity. Although complete
loss of inhibition in their studies still did not mean that antibacterial activity was lost
completely, its reduction to a level below detestability would generally represent a loss
of 80% or more, if not a complete loss. In these reports 'complete loss' was found to
result from exposure of honey to: 100°C for 30 mie; 100°C for 15 min96; 90°C for 8
1145; 100°C for 5 min, 90°C for 15 min, 70-80°C for 20-30 min, and 56°C for 60 min40;
80°C for 15 min108; 80°C for 30 min52; 60°C for 15 min132; and from use of 'heated
honey' (no details given)36. An almost complete loss was found on heating honey for
100°C for 10 min17. In another report20 the activity was not lost completely after
exposure of honey to 100°C for 15 min, but was reduced to the same level as that of
artificial honey, indicating that all activity other than that due to osmolarity had been
destroyed. A similar finding was made with honey boiled for 10 min81. Others also
have found that only part of the antibacterial activity is destroyed by heating honey.
Exposure of honey to 100°C for 10 min caused complete loss of activity against seven
species of bacteria, but only partial loss of activity against Bacillus pumilus and a
strain f Streptomyces, and no loss of activity against Bacillus subtilis and Sarcina lutee.
another report42 about half of the activity against B. subtilis was found to be
eat-stable. Heating honey at 56°C for 30 min caused a loss of activity that was
greater against some species than against others'. The presence of both heat-stable and
heat-sensitive factors has been reported by others also8,16,17,24,52. The retention of part
of the activity reported in instances where honey has been
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subjected to lesser degrees of heating probably results from there being only partial
destruction of the heat-sensitive factor, rather than a heat-stable factor being
responsible. The minimum inhibitory concentration of honey was found to increase
from 4% to 8% after exposure of honey to 46°C for 8 h, to 12% after exposure to
52°C for 8 h, and to 16% after exposure of honey to 55°C for 8 h132. Also reported108
was complete loss of activity after exposure to more than 65°C for less than 4 h, a
heavy but not complete loss after exposure to 56°C for 24 h, but no loss after exposure
to 40°C for 96 h. In another report51 there was complete loss of activity after
exposure to 100°C for 30 min, but no loss after exposure to 56°C for 30 min. Also
reported84 was complete loss of activity after exposure to 100°C for 5 min, but only
partial loss after exposure to 60°C for 1 h.

The stability of the antibacterial activity in heated honey has been found to depend on
the pH, activity being more rapidly lost at low pF145.

There are some large differences in the findings on the stability of the antibacterial
activity of honey at lower temperatures, but generally the conclusion has been that it
is stable below 40°C. No decrease in antibacterial activity was seen in 20 honeys held
at 40°C for 96 h31, as in the case mentioned above108, nor in honey held at 37°C for 24
h28. This is to be expected when it is borne in mind that the temperature in the
beehive where honey can spend quite a long time is around 34°C. It may not be as
stable at this temperature when diluted: the rate of production of hydrogen peroxide
drops off with time127, and the amount of hydrogen peroxide present after 16 h was
found to be much lower than that present after the first hour8. Others have also
reported that honey is less stable when diluted3,16,17,27,28,42 This could be a
consequence of the build-up of gluconic acid, or of damage to the glucose oxidase
from free radicals generated from hydrogen peroxide as discussed earlier. The latter
suggestion is supported by the finding with the isolated enzyme that addition of a
high level of hydrogen peroxide inactivated it after about 30 min98. However, it
has been reported that 50% honey held at room temperature for 100 h does not
lose its antibacterial activity42,127. There are several indications of the antibacterial
activity of honey being very stable at room temperature. In one study121 of a large
number of honeys it was noted that 43 of the 85 honeys with high antibacterial
activity were 9 months to 1 year old, and some were 2 years old. It was stated that
the antibacterial activity could be retained on long storage in the laboratory if the
honey was kept away from light and high temperatures. Another study4 of a large
number of honeys also found high activity in old samples of honey, some up to 5
years old, there being no correlation between the activity and the age of the honey. A
study of 18 honeys found some of the most active to be 2-3 years old16,17.
Storage of honey without deterioration of its antibacterial activity for several
months at 20°C42, also for 2 years at 25-30°C122, has been reported. Little or no loss
of activity was found in honeys stored for 1 year at room temperature in closed
containers, but loss of activity was noted in samples that had been opened
frequently66. On the other hand almost complete loss of activity was found on
storage of honeys for 18 months at 4°C in the dark30,94. Also reported8 has been a
loss of 15-16% in 3 months and 24-27% in 6 months storage at 20-25°C. These
differences in findings could be the result of there being differences in the stability of
various honeys. Marked differences in the proportions of activity lost
68

at each temperature tested have been reported by several authors8,31,42,54,61.
A 70-fold difference was found between honeys in the half-life of the
peroxide-accumulating system of various honeys129. This appeared to be related
to the floral source of the honey, prompting the suggestion that plant-derived
substances influenced the stability of the glucose oxidase. As the half-life of the
enzyme isolated from honey is approximately 5 min at 50°C, and the half-life of the
peroxide-accumulating system was found to range from 2.8 to 6.1 h at 55°C129, it
appears that this influence is a stabilizing one. The half-life of the
peroxide-accumulating system was determined for higher temperatures as well. In
addition to their own measurements, White and Subers129 estimated the half-life of the
antibacterial activity in honey from the data published by others on its decline on
heating. They found that at 65°C it ranged from 36 s to 4.5 min, and at 70°C, with a
larger number of samples, it ranged from a few seconds to 1 hour. Their estimates
from others' data were 4.5 h at 62.8°C, and 10 h at 57°C.
Sensitivity to light
It has been known since some of the earliest work on the antibacterial properties of
honey that the activity is unstable in light. Dold et al. in 193727 reported that
honey lost its ability to inhibit bacterial growth (tested in a 17% solution) after
exposing a thin film of it to sunlight. Others have since confirmed this observation.
Exposure of honey in a layer 1-2 mm thick to sunlight for 15 min was found to
result in complete loss of non-osmotic activity130. When not spread out in a thin
layer it has not been found to be so sensitive: almost complete loss of activity after 18
days in direct sunlight61, gradual disappearance of activity when exposed to direct
sunlight but not with diffuse daylight40, and a significant reduction in activity in honey
samples stored for 3-6 months on open shelves (more than twice that lost in the
same samples stored in a dark cupboard)8 have been reported. No loss of activity was
found, however, when a thin film of honey was exposed for 1 h to an ultraviolet (UV)
lamp (254 nm)17.

A large loss of activity was found in honey left for 8 months on a window-sill on the
sunny side of the building if stored in 1 or 2.5 litre jars made from clear
polystyrene, but not if stored in jars made of white or ivory polyethylene with low
transmission of light of wavelength below 400 nm122. Glass jars coated with a film to
absorb UV light were only partially successful in this study in preventing the loss of
activity, indicating the necessity to protect from light of wavelengths up to 400
nm122. Similar findings were made in another study: honey stored for 5-7 months by
the window in the sun lost about half of its activity if kept in UV-absorbing glass
jars, but kept all its activity if kept in jars made of dark glass31. This protection by
absorption of light can occur within the honey itself, as is seen with the greater stability
of bulk quantities compared with thin films. Dark-coloured honey was found to be more
light-stable than light-coloured honey8, presumably because it s less light into the bulk
of the honey. However, the sensitivity to light has been observed to depend on the
floral source of the honey35: in a 500 g jar kept in sunlight, some floral types of
honey were found to lose their activity completely in only 48 h35, and a reduction of up
to 67% in the production of hydrogen peroxide