The Ancillary Carbon Benefits of SO2 Reductions From a Small-Boiler Policy in Taiyuan, PRC

16 Pages·2004·0.14 MB·English

ARTICLE
JMOoUrgReNnAstLerOnF e tE aNl.V /I RBOENNEMFEITNST O &F DSOE2VELOPMENT 10.1177/1070496503260972
The Ancillary Carbon Benefits
of SO Reductions From a
2
Small-Boiler Policy in Taiyuan, PRC
1
RICHARDMORGENSTERN
ALANKRUPNICK
XUEHUAZHANG
Proposalsforgreenhouse-gasreductionshavebeenmetwithwidespreadskep-
ticisminthedevelopingworld,inpartbecausesuchcountriesfindtheircon-
ventionalair-pollutionproblemsmorepressing.Thegoalofthisarticleisto
examinewhetherreductionsincarbonemissionsthatareancillarytoconven-
tionalpollutantreductionsfromapolicytophaseoutsmallboilersindown-
townTaiyuan,Chinaarelargeenoughtomakesuchpoliciesattractivecarbon-
reducinginvestmentsto developedcountries.Based on theauthors’survey
data,therearesignificantcarbonbenefits(ontheorderof50%to95%reduc-
tion)associatedwiththispolicy,withlargereductionpotentialelsewherein
China.AlthoughthecostforboilersthatswitchedoutofcoalwasalmostU.S.
$2,900pertonofSO reduced,theseancillarycarbonreductionsarefreefroma
2
socialperspective.Suchinitiativesrepresentapotentiallysignificantsourceof
carbonreductionsthatdevelopedcountriescouldhelppayfor,bringingsignifi-
canthealthandotherbenefitstothecountry.
Keywords: carbon; air pollution; informal sector; ancillary benefits; abatement
costs; survey
I
t is well understood that greenhouse gas (GHG)–reduction policies,
whichcreateincentivestoaltertheuseoffossilfuels,canyieldnear-term
environmentalgainsquitedistinctfromthelong-termbenefitsdirectly
associatedwithclimatechange.Significantancillaryreductionsinlocal
air pollution are predicted in studies of the U.S. economy, and even
larger reductions are estimated for developing countries experiencing
high pollution levels (Cifuentes, Borja, Gouveia, Thurston, & Davis,
2001; Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2001). Despite the
findingsofnetbenefitswhentheancillarygainsareincluded,proposals
1.ThisarticleoriginallyappearedasadiscussionpaperonthewebsiteofResourcesfor
the Future (see http://www.rff.org/rff/Documents/RFF-DP-02-54.pdf). Discussion
papersareresearchmaterialscirculatedbytheirauthorsforpurposesofinformationand
discussion. They have not necessarily undergone formal peer review or editorial
treatment.
Journal of Environment & Development, Vol. 13, No. 2, June 2004 140-155
DOI:10.1177/1070496503260972
© 2004 Sage Publications
140
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Morgenstern et al. / BENEFITS OF SO 141
2
forGHGreductionshavebeenmetwithwidespreadskepticisminthe
developing world (Jin, Liu, & Yang, 2000).2
A promising approach, particularly relevant for developing coun-
tries,istoreversethepolicylogicandtoconsidertheancillarycarbon
benefitsoflocalairpollution–controlpolicies.Acompellingcasecanbe
made to focus on local pollution first: Large health benefits can often
beobtainedatrelativelymodestcost,particularlyinareaswhereair-
pollutionlevelsgrosslyexceedinternationalstandards.Thekeyques-
tionsarewhetherthereareanycarbonbenefitsassociatedwiththelocal
air-pollutionpoliciesand,ifsuchbenefitsdoexist,aretheylargeenough
tojustifyacloserlookatpoliciesthattakeair-pollutionpoliciesastheir
starting point?
Conventionalwisdomholdsthatpollutionabatement(e.g.,thecon-
trolofSO emissions)requiresadditionalenergytooperatescrubbersor
2
other equipment, thereby leading to an increase in carbon emissions.
Thisconcern,however,ignoresthepossibilityofreducingsulfurdioxide
(SO )emissionswithoutenergy-usingend-of-pipecontrols(e.g.,byfuel
2
substitutionorbygreatercombustionefficiency).Skepticismaboutthe
sizeofthetangible,near-termbenefitsavailabletothelocalcitizenryis
understandable.Sourcesofsignificantcarbonemissionsindeveloping
countriesareoftensmall,inefficientandhighlypollutingandarefound
inthe“informal-service”andmanufacturingsectors.Suchsourcesare
typicallyachallengetoregulate(Blackman,2000).AccordingtoaWorld
Bank(1996)report,forexample,asof1990,35%ofChina’scoalusewas
insmall-andmedium-sizedboilers,withanaveragesizeof2.3tonsper
hour.
This article examines the case of Taiyuan, an industrial, northern–
Chinesecityheavily dependentoncoalasasourceofprimaryenergy
thatrecentlybanneduncontrolledcoalcombustionincertainsmallboil-
ers in the downtown area as part of its overall SO control strategy.
2
Becausetheimplementationofthepolicyhasbeenunderwayfor2years
(2000to2001),itispossibletogobeyondthetypicalexantecalculations
andtoexaminetheactualexpostoperationofthepolicy.SO andcarbon
2
reductions are estimated via analysis of a recent survey of individual
boilersdesignedandconductedbyResourcesfortheFutureandbythe
Taiyuan Environmental Protection Bureau (EPB).
Overall,largereductionsofbothSO andcarbonoccurredasaresult
2
ofthedecisiontobanuncontrolledcoalcombustioninsmallboilersin
certainclassesofestablishmentsinthecentralcityofTaiyuan.Thesizeof
the estimated reductions depends on assumptions made about the
future operation of recently shut-down facilities and about the incre-
2.Akeyconcernisthatcreditsassociatedwithinexpensiveoptionsforcarbonreduc-
tionswouldbenefitdevelopedcountriestoday,whereasdevelopingcountrieswouldbe
left with more expensive options in the future.
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142 JOURNALOF ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT
mentalemissionsfromlarge,centralizedfacilitiesusedasreplacement
sources of energy. Not surprisingly, the marginal abatement costs per
tonofSO forbanninguncontrolledcoalcombustioninsmallboilersare
2
relativelyhigh.Yetthesecostsarecalculatedtobelessthanthevalueof
the marginal health benefits based on standard exposure, dose-
response,andvaluationassumptions.Adjustmentfortheindoorexpo-
suresassociatedwiththeuseofsmallboilersincommercialestablish-
ments,orattributinganypositivevaluetothecarbonreductions,would
clearly increase net benefits.
Thesecondsectionof thisarticle reviewstheliterature onancillary
benefitsandexaminestherationaleforreversingthepolicylogicbycon-
sideringtheancillarycarbonbenefitsoflocalair-pollutioncontrol.The
thirdsectionintroducesthespecificpolicyadoptedinTaiyuanin1999to
closesmallboilersincertainclassesofestablishmentsanddescribesthe
conductoftheboilersurvey,includingthesurveyinstrumentused.The
fourth section presents estimates of the SO and of carbon emissions,
2
bothbefore and after implementationof thesmall-boiler policy, along
withestimatesofthemarginalabatementcostsfortheSO reductions.
2
Thefifthsectionintegratesthesurveyresultswithotherinformationon
damage costs associated with uncontrolled coal combustion, both
indoorandoutdoor.Thefinalsectionexploresthepotentialgainsfrom
expanding this policy to other classes of establishments and to other
localesinTaiyuan,aswellastoothergeographicareas.Giventheevolv-
inginterestinusingtheCleanDevelopmentMechanism3toobtaincar-
bonreductionsfromsmall-scaleprojects,thisbroaderassessmentmay
have particular salience.
Reversing the Policy Logic
An extensive literature has developed on the ancillary benefits of
GHG–reduction policies.4 The predominant finding from this work is
that those benefits, which primarily consist of improved health from
reductioninconventionalairpollutants,canoffsetasignificantfraction
ofcarbonmitigationcosts.Indeed,insomecases,carbonreductionscan
be justified on the basis of the ancillary air-pollution improvements
alone.Thisoptimisticfindingisgenerallymoreapplicabletodeveloping
nations than to developed nations, owing to lower (relative) costs of
reducing carbon, as well as to the higher baseline pollution levels in
developing versus developed countries.
3.TheCleanDevelopmentMechanismwasestablishedunderArticle12oftheKyoto
Protocol for project-level activities to be carried out in developing (non–Annex I)
countries.
4.SeeDavis,Krupnick,andMcGlynn(2001)foracollectionofpapersandseeIPCC
(2001) for a section on this topic in the Working Group III report.
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Morgenstern et al. / BENEFITS OF SO 143
2
AlthoughthesefindingsholdforChina,inparticular,theyhaveyetto
provecompellinginthepolicyarena.AlthoughChinawasamongthe
firstnationstoratifytheUnitedNationsFrameworkConventiononCli-
mateChange(in1993), itsofficial positionintheinternationalclimate
negotiationshasbeencharacterizedas“conservative”(Buen,2000).In
theKyotonegotiations,Chinahasemphasizedcommonbutdifferenti-
ated responsibilities for developing nations and has strongly argued
thatitshouldnotbeexpectedtolimititsGHGemissionsuntilitsecon-
omy has reached the level of a developed country.
Notwithstanding its firm stand in the Kyoto negotiations, China’s
Agenda21,adoptedin1994,establishedclimatepolicyobjectives,such
as formulating a national program for controlling GHG emissions by
planting trees and by energy development.5 Since 1995, China has
adoptedmeasurestoreduceitscarbonemissions,includingparticipa-
tionincooperativeprojectswithNorway,Japan,theNetherlands,and
theUnitedStates.Foravarietyofreasons,China’scarbonemissionsfell
byalmost4%from1995to1998,atatimewhenitsGDPincreasedby36%.
Despitethereluctancetoembracetheancillary-benefitslogicthereis,
nonetheless, great concern about local air-pollution levels in many
urban areas. China has some of the highest pollution readings in the
worldforparticulatesandforSO (whichconvertstofineparticulatesin
2
theair),pollutantsthataremostsignificantlyimplicatedinpremature
deathand in serious morbidity. TheWorld Bank (1997) listed Taiyuan
amongthemostpollutedcitiesintheworldintermsofambientconcen-
trationoftotalsuspendedparticulatesandofSO ,basedon1995data.In
2
1999,theChinesegovernmentlistedTaiyuanasoneofitsmostpolluted
cities.6Beginningin1996,theChinesegovernmentinitiatedanational
policy of “One Control and Two Compliances,” which set emissions
standardsinmassratherthanconcentrationtermsandwhichrequired
cities to implement “total emissions control” (TEC). In principle, each
province and each city was required to bring its total emissions of
particulates,SO ,andotherpollutantswithinthelevelsdesignatedby
2
thenationalgovernment.ThepolicyalsorequiredsomekeyChinesecit-
iestomeetthenationalambientair-qualitystandardsby2000,although
the date was later extended.
Giventheclearinterestinreducinglocalairpollutionandtheclear
reluctancetodirectlyaddresscarbonemissions,itseemsreasonableto
reversethepolicylogicimplicitintheancillary-benefitsliterature.That
5. As noted in China’s Agenda 21,
Chinawillactivelyseekinvestmentfromtheinternationalcommunityforprojectswhichassist
intheslowingofclimatechange.Theseincludeprojectsforcoal-firedpowerplants,hydroelec-
tricpowerstations,coalgasprojects,coalmethaneutilizationandtreeplanting.(EuropeanPar-
liament, 1996)
6. See http://www.zhb.gov.cn/649368281714524160/20021125/1036005.shtml.
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144 JOURNALOF ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT
is,weconsiderwhetherthelocalair-pollutionpoliciesthattheChinese
governmentarealreadyundertakingalsomaygenerate(ancillary)car-
bonbenefits.Iftheydo,howlarge,howcosteffective,andhowcostben-
eficial are these policies? What is the potential for expanding such
efforts?
The Policy to Shut Down
Small Boilers in Taiyuan
THE POLICY
In June 1999, the Taiyuan government issued the Bulletin Controlling
AirPollution(TaiyuanPeople'sGovernment,1999),whichcoveredawide
rangeofair-pollutionsourcesinthearea,includingbothstationaryand
mobilesources.AmongtheissuescoveredintheBulletinwasadecision,
supported by further administrative guidance, to shut down existing
smallcoal-firedboilersoperatedbycertainclassesofestablishmentsina
centralzoneestablishedbytheTaiyuanGovernment;smallboilerswere
definedasthosewitharatedcapacityof2tonsofsteamorlessperhour.
All the heating boilers operating in areas served by central heating
wererequiredtoconnecttothedistrictheatingsystem.Inaddition,all
therestaurants,entertainmentcenters,andpublicbathhouseslocatedin
the designated central zone were required to switch to less-polluting
fuels such as coal gas, diesel oil, electricity, and liquid petroleum gas
(LPG).Thecentralzonewascomposedofhighpopulation-densityareas
ineachofthesixdistrictsinTaiyuan.Thepolicywasadministeredbythe
Taiyuan EPB.
THE SURVEY
IncooperationwiththeTaiyuanEPB,wedevelopedasurveyinstru-
ment to assess the impact of the small-boiler policy in the designated
controlzone.Specifically,wecollectedinformationontheboilerequip-
mentinplacepriortoimplementationofthenewpolicy;thetypes,quan-
tities,andcostsoffuels usedandhoursofoperation(beforeandafter
implementationofthenewpolicy);andnewinvestmentsundertakento
upgrade or replace the boilers in 2000 and 2001. The survey format is
displayed in the appendix.
ThesurveywasadministeredinNovemberandDecember2001inthe
six districtssupervised bytheTaiyuan EPB.7Inan initial meeting,the
Taiyuan EPB reviewed the survey forms with the staff of the district
EPBs.EachdistrictEPB,inturn,designated“streetenvironmentalper-
7. The six districts are Jinyuan, Yingze, Jiancaoping, Wanbolin, Xiaodian, and
Xinghualing.
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Morgenstern et al. / BENEFITS OF SO 145
2
sonnel”whowereindividuallyinchargeofadministeringenvironmental
regulationsonspecificstreetsandofvisitingalltheestablishmentswith
smallboilerscoveredbythe1999Bulletininboth2000and2001.Eachdis-
trictEPBcompletedasurveyformfortheseyears.
Intotal,datawerecollectedfor308boilersthatoperatedinthedesig-
natedcontrolzoneattheendof1999.Itisourunderstandingthatthis
numberrepresentsallthesmallboilersintherestaurants,entertainment
centers,andpublicbathhousesinthedesignatedzone,aswellasthose
boilersusedfor(winter)heatingpurposeslocatedinthesubzonewhere
districtheatingbecameavailablein2000andin2001.Asaformofqual-
itycontrol, a numberofinternal consistencycheckswerecarried out.8
Fortyboilerswereremovedfromthedatasetforavarietyoftechnical
reasons, leaving a total of 268 boilers for further analysis.9
The Survey Results
SO AND CARBON EMISSIONS
2
EstimatesofSO andofcarbonemissionsfromthe268boilersbefore
2
andafterimplementationofthesmall-boilershut-downpolicyaredis-
playedinTable1.Ninety-nineoftheenterprisesreconfiguredtheirboil-
erstoburnotherfuels,98reportedlystoppedoperationcompletely,and
71switchedtocentralheating.Amongthe99boilersthatswitchedfuel,
thefuels of choicewere oil (69%), coal gas (21%), electricity (5%), and
LPG(4%).Forallboilersinthesample,SO emissionswereabout1,900
2
metrictonsattheendof1999.Bywayofcomparison,theTaiyuanEPB
estimatestotalSO point-sourceemissionsforthewholecity,notjustthe
2
zonedesignatedforshuttingdownsmallboilers,at258,000tonsin1999
(Morgenstern et al., 2001). Thus, the emissions affected by the small-
boiler shut-down policy implemented in 2000 and 2001 represent less
than 1% of total point-source SO emissions in the entire city.
2
Whenestimatingemissionreductionsassociatedwiththenewpolicy,
itisparticularlyimportanttoaccountforthoseboilersreportedasshut
down and for those switching to central heating. If one assumes that
shut-downboilersarenotsubsequentlyreopenedaftertheadministra-
tionofthesurveyandthattheservicestheyperformarenottakenup
(with corresponding emissions increases) in the remaining facilities,
then a 100% emission reduction is implied.
8.Forexample,weregressedthereportedinvestmentcostsonaseriesofvariablesrep-
resentingsize,fueltype,andlocation(thesubdistrict).Overall,thesignsofthevariables
were as expected. TheR2for the regression was 0.65.
9.Twenty-twoboilerswerereplacedbylargerunitsaspartofavoluntaryconversion
fortechnologicalimprovementandweretherebyexemptfromthe1999Bulletin.Keyinfor-
mationonenergyusebythereplacementunitswasmissingfor18oftheboilers(primarily
for electric-powered replacement boilers).
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n 77
ns) rbo 97.97.
n To bB Ca 5,15,1
nse (i Case
espo SO2 25.825.7
R
y
c
oli
d Afteruan (2000 to 2001) Emissions After P aCase A SOCarbon2 651.155,766.425.75,197.7 625.3550,568.8 hut down.
Table 1SOand Carbon Emissions Before an2y Implementation for Small Boilers in Taiy Emissions BeforePolicy Response (in Tons) er of BoilersSOCarbon2 2681,916.8112,336.399532.221,434.798515.420,636.871869.370,264.8 of centralized heating as 72% of emissions before sof centralized heating as zero.
olic umb ons ons
P N missimissi
ee
ate s bon bon
g to operperationng boiler Oand car2and carO2
All boilersBoilers continuinBoilers stopped oCentralized heati a.Case Acounts Sb.Case B counts S
146
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Morgenstern et al. / BENEFITS OF SO 147
2
Weexaminedthisissuebyincludinginthesurveyaquestiononthe
motive for the shutdown. Three of the 98 shut-down boilers were
reportedasgoingbankrupt.Eightofthemwerereportedascombining
with others, whereas 5 were reportedas being removedfrom the pre-
mises. The large majority of the boilers (82) were reported as simply
shutdown. With the possible exception of the 8 boilers in the survey
reportedascombiningwithothers,thereisnocrediblebasistoassume
anythingotherthanacompletecessationofoperations(i.e.,zeroemis-
sions).10Ifthe8boilersreportedascombiningwithotherswereinestab-
lishments covered by the Bulletin, their emissions would already be
accountedfor.Iftheboilersreportedascombiningwithotherswerenot
inestablishmentscoveredbytheBulletin,wewouldbeovercountingthe
emissionreductions.Weacknowledgesomeuncertaintyonthispoint,
butwereporttheresultsseparately,accordingtothereasonfortheboiler
shutdown.
Thesituationinvolvingcentralizedheatingissomewhatmorecom-
plicated. Based on a feasibility study developed for a district heating
project in a nearby city (Datong), plus a site visit to Power Plant 1 in
Taiyuan, Daniel Millison (personal communication, April 3, 2002) has
estimatedthatcentral-heatingfacilitiesgenerate72%ofboththeSO and
2
the carbon emissions of the typical small boiler, per unit of output.11
Using the Millison emissions estimate for central heating, along with
fuel-specificemissionestimatesdevelopedbytheTaiyuanEPB,wecal-
culate that, as a result of thesmall-boiler shut-downpolicy, SO emis-
2
sionswerereducedbytwothirds,toabout650tonsperyear(whencal-
culatedacrossall268smallboilersinthesurvey).12,13Theseresultsare
showninTable1asCaseA.Basedoncomparableassumptions,carbon
emissionswerereducedby50%asaresultofthesmall-boilershut-down
10.Itisalsotrue,asnotedbyoneofthereferees,thatampleanecdotalevidencesuggests
thatforbiddenoperationsoftenresumeonceauthoritiesstoplooking.Althoughwecannot
excludethispossibility,inthecaseofsmallboilersreportedasshutdown,theinterviewers
wereexplicitlybriefedonthisissueinadvance.Informalpostsurveydiscussionswiththe
interviewersindicatedthat,inmostcases,theoldboilershadbeenphysicallyremoved
from the premises.
11. The Millison memorandum is available from the authors of this article.
12.AssumptionsusedtocalculateSO emissionsforreplacementfuelsareasfollows:
2
(a)oil-burningboilers:Taiyuanusuallyuseslightdieseloil,thepollutingcoefficientis
20mgsulfur/m3;SO2emissions=fuelconsumption×20.0.2isthesulfurcontentoflight
×
dieseloil;(b)thepollutingcoefficientofoil-burningboilersis20 0.2/0.8=5kgperton;
and(c)gas-burningboilers:Thepollutingcoefficientis630kg/106m3.SO emissions=
2
fuel consumption×630 kg / 106m3(source: Taiyuan EPB).
13.Assumptionsusedtocalculatecarboncontentforreplacementfuelsareasfollows:
Carbon-contentestimation:(a)coal:ton×0.8;(b)oil(dieseloil):m3×0.94×0.85;(c)gas(coal
gas):m3×0.1125×0.75/1,000;(d)electricity:kilowattsperhour(kwh)×375×0.8/
1,000,000;(e)liquidpetroleumgas(LPG):m3×0.542×0.807;(f)centralizedheating:kwh×
× ×
375 0.8 0.9/1,000,000(sameasforelectricity,butheattransmissionefficiencyof90%is
assumed) (source: Daniel Millison, personal communication, April 3, 2002).
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148 JOURNALOF ENVIRONMENT & DEVELOPMENT
policy. For those boilers that switched fuels, higher reductions were
obtained; 95% for SO and 76% for carbon.
2
Taiyuanofficialsreportedthattheenergyreplacingthe71boilerscon-
verted to centralized heating was derived from waste heat, not from
additional coal combustion as assumed in Case A. Accordingly, we
developedanothercasetoreflecttheassumptionofzeroemissionsfrom
thereplacementdistrictheating.Basedonthisassumption,wecalculate
thattotalSO emissionswerereducedbymorethan98%asaresultofthe
2
small-boilershut-downpolicy.Basedoncomparableassumptions,car-
bonemissionswerereducedby95%asaresultofthesmall-boilershut-
down policy. (These results are shown in Table 1 as Case B.)
SO Marginal-Abatement Costs
2
Marginal-abatementcostsrepresenttheincrementalcostspertonof
emissionreductions.Unfortunately,wehaveonlycompletecostinfor-
mationonasubsetof44 boilersthatswitchedfuels inresponsetothe
policy to shut down uncontrolled combustion of raw coal.14 Table 2
showsthedistributionoffuelschosenbythissubsetof44boilers.More
than60%switchedtooil,30%switchedtocoalgas,and10%switchedto
LPG. This distribution of (cleaner) fuels is similar but not identical to
thatofthefullgroupof99boilersthatswitchedfuel.15Forthissubsetof
44 boilers, we summed the annualized investment costs for the new
equipment and the incremental fuel costs.16 This sum, divided by the
reported emission reductions, represents the average SO marginal-
2
abatementcostsofthe44boilersforwhichwehavecompletedata.As
showninTable2,totalinvestmentinthe44boilersamountedtoabout
U.S.$600,000in2000andin2001.Annualfuelcostsincreasedbymore
thanafactoroffive,fromU.S.$150,000tomorethanU.S.$800,000.Note
thattheSO marginal-abatementcostsvaryquitedramaticallyfromthe
2
lowest(coalgas)tothehighest(dieseloil)fueltype.LPGisconsiderably
moreexpensivethancoalgaspertonofSO abated.Acrossthefullgroup
2
of44boilers,theaveragemarginalabatementcostisU.S.$2,850perton
ofSO .17,18Ofcourse,thispolicyalsoresultedintheincidentalreduction
2
of more than 8,700 tons of carbon for these 44 boilers.
14.We also have(nominally)complete datafor eight additionalboilers. However,
becauseofinternalinconsistenciesintheresponses,weeliminatedthemfromthedataset.
15.ThefullgrouphadmoreoilandlesscoalgasandLPG.Inaddition,5%ofthefull
group switched to electricity, whereas none in this subsample did so.
16. Annual investment costs are taken to be 0.1 of total investment costs.
17.Weightingtheaveragebasedonthedistributioninthefullsampleof99boilersver-
susthe44inthissubsampleraisesthemarginalabatementcostby2.9%,toabout30,000
Renminbi per ton.
18.TheU.S.$2,850figureisderivedfromtheaggregateinformationinTable2.Because
thesmallerboilerstendtohavehighermarginalabatementcosts,theaverageofthemar-
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n)
AverageMarginal-AbatementCostU.S. $ per To 2,0293,5512,812 2,850
(
$) 005 5
U.S. After 5,505,301,62 2,42
st ( 26514 82
o
C
Energy Before 60,96383,3885,813 150,163
by Fuels vestmentAfterU.S. $) 12,87536,25053,250 02,375
n In ( 23 6
o
cti n
u o
Red (%)SO2ducti 96.3894.6995.50 95.46
O2 Re
2S
Table nt Cost of s Afterwitch TotalCarbon(in Tons) 709.951,412.31178.37 2,300.63
Abateme EmissionFuel S TotalSO2n Tons) 4.187.350.69 12.23
al- (i
n
gi ns) 600 6
Mar s Beforewitch TotalCarbo(in Ton 4,287.36,036.1736.0 11,059.4
nS
EmissioFuel TotalSO2n Tons) 115.49138.4515.32 269.26 as.
(i m g
u
e
umberofoilers 13274 44 d petrol
N B ui
q
= li
oil G
gasel) LP
Coal (DiesLPG Total Note:
149
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