The Amazonian Languages (Cambridge Language Surveys)

238 Pages·1999·28.3 MB·English

by  R. M. W. Dixon

THE AMAZONIAN LANGUAGES
The Amazon Basin is arguably both the least-known and the most
complex linguistic region in the world today. Itis thehome of sorne 300
languages belonging to around 20 language familíes, plus more than a
dozen genetic isolates, and manyof these languages (often incom­
pletely documented and mostly endangered) show properties that con­
stitute exceptions to received ideas about Hnguistic universals. This
book is the first to provide an overview in a single volume of this rich
and exciting linguistic area. The editors and contributors have sought
to make their descriptions as c1ear and accessible as possible, in arder
to provide a basis for further research on the structural characteristics
of Amazonian languages and their gene tic and area! relationships, as
well as a point of entry to important cross-Iinguistic data for the wider
constituency of theoreticallinguists.
R. M. W. DIXON and ALEXANDRA Y. AIKHENVALD are Directorand
Associate Director of the Research Centre for Linguistic Typology at
the Australian National University (the Research Centre will reJocate to
La Trabe University in Melboume from January 2000). Professor
Dixon's book publications inelude grammatical studies of the
Austra!~n languages Dyirbal and Yidiny, of Fijian and of English, as
well a.s The Languages of Australia (1980) and Ergativity (1994). One of
his current projects is a grammar of Jarawara (Brazil). Professor
Aikhenvald has published 6 books and nearly 100 papers in Russian,
English, Portuguese and Yiddish, covering a range of subjects including
Berber, Heb"rew, Indo-European and Native South American languages.
Her monograph Classifiers: A Typology of Noun Categorization Devices
will be published in 1999. She is currentJy completing a full-Jength
grammar of Taríana.
CAMBRIDGE LANGUAGE SURVEYS
General Editors:
S. R. Anderson (Yale University)
1. Bresnan (Stanlord University)
B. Comrie (Max Planck lnstitutelor Evolutionary Anthropology,
Leipzig)
W. Dressler (University 01 Vienna)
C. Ewen (University 01 Leiden)
R. Lass (University 01 Cape Town)
D. Lightfoot (University 01 Maryland)
P. H. Matthews (University 01 Cambridge)
S. Romaine (Uníversity olOxlord)
N. V. Smith (University College London)
N. Vincent (University 01 Manchester)
This series otrers general accounts of the major language families of
the world, with volumes organized either on a purely genetic basis or
on a geographical basis, whichever yields the most convenient and
intelligible grouping in each case.
Each volume compares and contrasts the typological features of
the lang¡ªages it deals with. It also treats the relevant genetic
relationships, historical development and sociolinguistic issues
arising from their role and use in the world today. The books are
in tended for Iinguists from undergraduate level upwards, but no
special knowledge of the languages under consideration is assumed.
Volumes such as those on Australia and the Amazon Basin are also
of wider relevance, as the future of the languages and their speakers
raises important social and polítical issues.
Already published:
The languages of Australia R M. W. Dixon
The languages of the Soviet Union Bernard Comrie
The Mesoamerican Indian languages Jorge A. Suárez
The Papuan languages of New Guinea WiIliam A. Foley
Chinese Jerry Norman
The languages of Japan Masayoshi Shibatani
Pidgins and creoles (Volume 1: Theory and Structure; Volume II:
Reference survey) John A. Ho/m
The Indo-Aryan languages Colin Masica
The Celtíc languages edited by Donald MacAulay
The Romance languages Rebecca Posner
The Korean language Ho-Min So/m
..
fJ~J"O z~~· y
THE AMAZONIAN
LANGUAGES
edited by
R. M. W. DIXON
and
ALEXANDRA y. AIKHENVALD
Research Centre for Linguistic Typology
La Trobe University, Melbourne
'.!
CAMBRIDGE
UNIVERSITY PRESS
CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS
CONTENTS

Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid" Cape Town, Singapore, Sao Paulo

Cambridge Universíty Press

The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 2RU, UK

Published in the Unitcd States ofAmerica by Cambridge University Press, New York

www.cambridgo.org

Information on this title: www.eambridge.org/9780521570213

© Cambridge University Prcss 1999

This publication is in copyright. Subject lo statutory e¡¡ception
Lis! o/rnaps page xvii

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
Lis! o/comributors xviii

no reproduction of any part may take place without
Acknowledgements xx

the writlen pcrmission ofCambridge Univcrsity Press.
LiSl o/abbreviatioflS xxi

Conventions /ollolVed xxiv

F irst published 1999

Hardback version transferred to digital pfÍnting 2006

Digitally printed first paperback version 2006
Introduction by R. M. W. Dixon and Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald

I Cultural background 3

A cala/ogue I'ecord fol' Ihis publica/ion is availab/e from the British Library 2 Linguistic diffusion 7

3 Genetic relationship 11

Library ofCongress Cataloguing in Publication data
4 The punctuated equilibrium model 16

Amazonian languages I edited by R, M, W. Dixon and Alexandra Y.
5 Org!nization of thís book 19

Aikhenvald.
p. cm. ~ (Cambridge language surveys)
Bibliography 20

¡neludes bibliographical referenees.

ISBN O 521 57021 2 (hardback)
2 Carib by Desmond C. Derbyshire 23

1, Indians of South America Amazon River Region Languages.

l Introduction 23

!. Dixon, Robert M. W. 11. Aikhenvald, A. Y. (Aleksandra

rurevna) m. Series.
2 Phonology 26

PM5099.8.A48 1999
2.1 Segmental 26

498 _. de21 98-46270 CIP
2.2 Phonotactícs and suprasegmentals 26

2.3 Morphophonology 28

ISBN-13 978-0-521-57021-3 hardback 3 Morphology, partíc\es and pronouns :n

ISBN-lO 0-521-57021-2 hardback
3.1 Inflectional morpho!ogy 31

ISBN-13 978-0-521-57893-6 paperback 3.!.1 Person-marking affixes on verbs, nouns, 32

ISBN-lO 0-521-57893-0 paperback adverbials and postpositions

3.1.2 Tense, aspect, mode and number suffixes on 37

verbs

3.1.3 Possession, tense and number suffixes on nouns 40

3.1.4 InflecHona! suffixes on locative postpositions 42

3.2 Derivational morphology 43

3.2, I Verb derivationa! affixes 44

3.2.2 Nominalizing affixes attached to verb stems to 45

form nouns
viii Coments
Contents ix
3.2.3 Some adverbial derivations from noun and verb 50
7.4 Constituent order 98
stems
7.5 Non-verbal clauses 98
3.3 The particle word c1ass 53
7.6 Complex sentences: relative c1auses, complement 99
3.4 Pronouns 53
c1auses, coordination, pivot and switch-reference
4 Syntax 54
7.7 Grammatical mean s used for marking díscourse JOI
4.1 Main clause structuring 55 functions
4.2 Subordinate c1ause constructions 56
Bibliography 102
4.2.1 Nominalizations 56

4.2.2 Adverbializations 57
4 Tupí by Aryon D. Rodrigues 107
4.2.3 Postpositions 58
1 Introductíon 107
4.3 Ergativity 60
2 Pbonology 110
Bibliogmphy 61
2.1 Vowels 110
2.2 Consonants 112

3 The Arawak language family by Alexandra Y. Aikbenvald 65
~ 2.3 Tone 114

1 Introduction: the Arawak languages and their speakers 65 I 3 Grammatical overview 114

1.1 Comparative studies, genetic c1assification and 73 4 Nouns 115

subgrouping 5 Pronouns 117

2 Pbonology 75 6 Verbs 118

2.1 Segmental phonology 75 11 7 Demonstratives 120

I
2.2 Syllable structure, suprasegmentals and phonotactics 78 I 8 Questions 120
2.3 Morphophonology 79
9 Subordinate clauses 121
3 Typological profile 80
10 Pivots 121
3.1 Word structure 80
Bibliogfaphy 122
3.2 Morphological processes 80

3.3 Word c1asses 81
5 Tupl-Guaraní by Cheryl Jensen 125
4 Nominal morphology 82
1 Introduction 125
4.1 Possession 82
2 Identification of Tupí-Guaraní languages 128
4.2 Classífiers and genders 83
2.1 Distinguisbing characteristícs of Tupí-Guaraní 128
4.3 Number 84
languages
5 Closed classes: personal pronouns, demonstratives, 85
2.2 Subgroups within Tupí-Guaraní 129
interrogatives, numbers, adpositions
3 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní pbonology 133
6 Verbalmorphology 85
3.1 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní phonemes 133
6.1 Classification of verbs and predicate structure 86
3.2 Proto-Tupí-Guaraní allomorphs 134
6.2 Cross-referencing and split ergativity 87
3.3 Possible Tupí-Guaraní morphopbonemic phenomena 135
6.3 Valency-changing derivations 90
3.3.1 Replacement by nasal consonants 135
6.4 Other verbal categories 93
3.3.2 Strategies for the loss of consonant clusters 136
6.5 Noun incorporatíon 95 formed at morpbeme juncture
6.6 Relative and negative markers 95
4 Phonological changes witbin Tupí-Guaraní 137
7 Syntax 96
4.1 Weakening of "'tJand "'ts 137
7.1 Grammatical relations 96
4.2 Palatalization 138
7.2 Noun phrase structure 96
4.3 Labializatíon 140
7.3 Comp1ex predica tes and serial verbs 97
4.4 Merger of *pwith *w 141
x Conlents Contents xi
4.5 Final-consonant phenomena \42
5.4 Noun classification \84
4.5.\ Devoicing \42
5.5 Agreement marking on the verb 185

4.5.2 Nasalization 143
6 Syntax 187

4.5.3 Loss 143
6.1 Constituent order in declarative sentences 187

4.6 Vowel shift
144
6.2 Adpositional phrases 188

5 Stems
146
6.3 Genitive phrases 190

5.1 Categories of stems \46
6.4 Demonstrative phrases 192

5.2 Stem c\asses
146
6.5 Numeral phrases 192

6 Person markers
146
6.6 Adjectival phrases 193

7 Nouns
148
6.7 Ergativity 193

7.1 Case marking 148
6.8 Valency-changing processes 195

7.2 Possession 150
6.8.1 Reflexives and reciprocals 195

7.3 Noun composition 151
6.8.2 Ca usa tivizatio n 195

7.4 Indication of number 151
6.9 Switch-reference 197

7.5 Noun phrases 152
7 About the consistency of Macro-Je as a genetic grollp 198

7.6 Possession c1asses 152
7.1 A brief appraisal of the grammatical affinity 198

8 Postpositions 153
7.2 Phonological equations 198

9 Verbs 154
Bibliography 201

9.1 Independent verbs 155

9.2 Oblique-topicalized verbs 156
7 Tucano by Janet Barnes 207

9.3 Serial verb constructions 157
1 Introduction 207

9.4 Temporal subordinate c1ause constructions 157
2 Phonology 209

9.5 Valency-changing devices 158
2.1 1l Syllable structllre 210

9.5.1 Causatives 158
2.2 Segmental phonology 210

9.5.2 Detransitivizers 159
2.3 Nasalization 211

9.5.3 Object incorporation 159
2.4 Accent 212

10 N ominalizations 159
3 Morphology 212

11 Semantics 160
3J The verb 213

Bibliography 161
3.1.1 Evidentials 213

3.1.2 Aspect 214

6 Macro-Je by Aryon D. Rodrigues
165
3.1.3 Mood and modality 216

I Historical survey
165
3.2 Pronouns 217

2 Distribution
166
3.2.1 Personal pronouns 217

3 Linguistic scholarshíp
169
3.2.2 Possessive pronollns 218

4 Phonology
171
3.3 Oassifiers 218

4J Vocalic systems 171
3.4 Specificity marker 219

4.2 Consonantal systems 174
3.5 Nouns 221

4.3 Tone
180
3.6 Adjectives 221

5 Morphology
180
3.7 Negation 222

5.1 lnflection for contiguity of a determiner 180
3.8 N ominalized verbs 222

5.2 Inflection ror possession 182
3.9 Switch-reference 223

5.3 Number 183
4 SvntHx 224
xii Contents Contents xiii
4.1 Time and location 224 10 Nambiquara by Ivan Lowe 269
4.2 Noun phrase 225 1 Introduction 269
J
Bibliography 225 2 Phonology 271
2.1 The variants of phonemes 272
8 Pano by Eugene E. Loos 227 2.2 Syllable structure 272
1 Introduction 227 2.3 Stress 272
2 Phonology 230 2.4 Morphophonemics 272
2.1 Segmental phonology 230 3 Morphology 273
2.2 Common phonological variations 231 3.1 Verbs 274
3 Grammar 234 3.1.1 Main verbs 274
3.1 Word classes and noun phrase formatíon 234 3.1.2 Subordinate verbs 277
3.1.1 Noun phrase 235 3.2 Adjectives 279
3.1.2 Pronoun c1asses 235 3.3 Nouns 280
3.1.3 Relative c1auses 236 3.4 Pronouns 283
3.1.4 Noun phrase pluralization 236 3.5 Adverbs 283
3.2 Transitivity concord 236 3.6 Interjections 284
3.2.1 Switch-reference 237 3.7 Ideophones 284
3.2.2 Adverbial suffix concord 239 4 Syntax 284
3.2.3 Locative phrases 239 4.1 Main c1auses 284
3.2.4 Ergative marking 240 4.2 Subordinate c\auses 287
3.3 Noun incorporatíon 243 4.3 Clause coordination 288
3.4 Verb formation 243 4.4 Noun phrases 289
3.4.1 Verbroots 243 4.5ij Nomina1izations 290
3.4.2 Suffixes 244 Bibliography 291
3.5 Mood indicators 248
3.6 Deictics 248 11 Arawá by R. M. W. Dixon 293
Bibliography 249 1 Introduction 293
2 Phonology 295
9 Makú by Silvana and Valteir Martins 251 3 Word c\asses 298
I Illtroduction 251 4 Noulls 298
2 Genetic classification 253 1 .5 Noull phrase structure 299
3 Phonology 255 6 Verbs 300
4 Word structure 257 7 Predicate structure 300
5 Word classes 257 8 PronOUl1S 302
6 Nominal categories: possessíon, c1assifiers, number 258 9 Demonstratives and interrogatives 304
7 Verb structure 259 10 Construction types 304
8 Valency-changing derivations 260 Bibliography 306
9 Incorporation 261
10 Grammatical relations 263 12 Small language families and ¡sola tes in Peru by Mary Ruth Wise 307
11 Negation 264 1 Illtroduction: the languages and families 307
12 Syntax 265 2 Phonology 312
13 Lexicon 265 3 Morphology 318
Bibliography 266 ~'{j 3.1 Nominal morphology 319
l
xiv Conteltts Contents xv

3.1.1 Classifiers 319
3 Colombia 369

3.1.2 Case 320
3.1 Phonology 370

3.2 Pronouns 321
3.2 Morphology 372

3.3 Adjectives 323
3.2.1
Word structure and typological profile 372
3.3.1 Comparative and superlative grades 323
3.2.2
Nominal morphology 373
3.4 Verbal morphology 324
3.2.3
Grammatical relations 375
4 Syntax 329
3.2.4
Verbal morphology 375
4.1 Constituent order 329
3.3 Syntax
376
4.2 Relativizatíon 332
4 Venezuela
377
4.3 Subordinatíon and coreference/switch-reference 333
4.1 Phonology 377

Bibliography 335
4.2 Features of the grammar 378

Bibliography 379

13 Other small families and isolates by Alexandm Y Aikhenvald 341

and R. M. W. Dixon
14 Areal diffusion and language contact in tbe (~ana-Vaupés basin, 385

1 Brazil 341
north-west Amazonia by Alexandra Y. Aikhenvald

1.1 Yanomami 341
1 Areal diffusion in north-west Amazonia 385

1.1.1
Phonology 345 2 Linguistic situation in the Ic;ana-Vaupés basin 386

1.1.2
Word structure and word c1asses 346 2.1 Languages spoken 386

U.3
Nominal categories 346 2.2 Cultural setting and language attitudes 388

1.1.4
C1assifiers 347 2.3 Historical evidence 390

1.1.5
Grammatical relations 348 3 The Vaupés regíon as a linguistic afea 391

1.1.6
Verb structure 349 3.1 General observations 391

1.1.7
Noun incorporation and verb compounding 350 Phonological characteristics 394

1.1.8
Syntax 350 3.3 Grammatical structure 396

1.2 Trumai by Raquel Guirardello 351
3.3.1 Typological profile and word structure 396

1.2.1 Phonology 352
3.3.2 Nominal morphology 397

1.2.2 Features of the grammar 352
3.3.3 Grammatical relations 403

1.3 Mura-Piraba 353
3.3.4 Verbal morphology and predicaté structure 404

1.3.1
Phonology 354 3.4 Syntax and discourse techniques 405

1.3.2
Features of the grammar 355 3.5 Semantics 406

lA Jabutí
357 4 Properties shared by languages of the Icyana and Vaupés 406

104.1
Phonology 357 region

1.4.2
Features of the grammar 357 4.1 Pitch accent 406

1.5 Chapacura family 358
4.2 Topic-advan(.'Íng verbal derivatian 407

1.5.1 PhonoJogy 359
4.3 Possessíve classifiers and -ya-possessive marker 409

1.5.2 Features of the grammar 359
4.4 Complex systems of classifiers 410

1.6 Máku 361
5 Conclusions 411

1.7 Aikaná and Koaia 362
Bibliography 413

2 Bolivia 364

2.1 The Tacana familv 364
15 The Upper Xingu as au incipieut linguistic area by Lucy Seki 417

365
1 The Upper Xingu and its languages 417

2.1.2 Features of the grammar 366
l.l Languages spoken 417

2.2 Isolates 367
1.2 Historical background 419
xvi Contents
1.3 The mobility of groups, language 105s and further MAPS

contacts
2 The Upper Xingu as a culture area
3 Linguistíc situatíon
4 lncipient areal diffusíon in the Upper Xingu
5 Conclusions
Bibliography
Index 01 authors
lndex ol/anguages and /anguagelami/ies
Subject index
Carib languages with approximate locations page 22
Arawak languages with approximate locations 66
Tupí languages with approximate locations 108
Tupí-Guaraní languages with approximate locations 126
Macro-Je languages with approximate locations 164
Tucano languages with approximate locations 208
Pano languages with approximate locations 228
Makú languages and dialects with approximate locations 252
Nambiquara languages and dialects with approximate locations 268
Arawá languages and dialects with approximate locations 292
SmalllaQ1Juage families and ¡solates of Peru with approximate 308
locations
Smalllanguage families and isolates of Brazil, Bolivia, Colombia 342
and Venezuela with approximate locations
Languages in the Ic;ana-Vaupés Basin with approximate locations 384
Languages of the Upper Xingu with approximate locations 418