The Aging Body: Physiological Changes and Psychological Consequences

304 Pages·1985·7.183 MB·English

by  Susan Krauss Whitbourne (auth.)

The Aging Body
Susan Krauss Whitbourne
The Aging Body
Physiological Changes
and Psychological Consequences
Springer-Verlag
New York Berlin Heidelberg Tokyo
Susan Krauss Whitboume
Department of Psychology
University of Massachusetts at Amherst
Amherst, MA 01003, U.S.A
With 16 Figures
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Whitboume, Susan Krauss.
The aging body.
Includes bibliographies and index.
1. Aging-Physiological Aspects. 2. Aging
Psychological Aspects. 3. Adaptation (Physiology)
4. Adjustment (Psychology) 1. Title.
[DNLM: I. Adaptation, Physiological. 2. Adaptation,
Psychological. 3. Aged-psychology. 4. Aged.
WT 104 W579al
QP86.W47 1985 612'.67 85-12545
ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-9575-4 e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4612-5126-2
DOl: 10.1007/978-1-4612-5126-2
© 1985 by Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1s t edition 1985
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Typeset by Publishers Service, Bozeman, Montana.
987 654 321
To my father, Theodore C Krauss, M.D.,
whose work in geriatrics was an inspiration to many
Preface
The objective of this book is to provide information that will be useful to people
in a variety of disciplines who wish to learn more about normal aging processes
in the human body. Although gerontologists in the biological sciences are making
great strides in research on human aging and documenting this work in mono
graphs, texts, and review chapters, this information is generally not easily acces
sible nor is it comprehensible to nonprofessionals in these fields. This book is
intended to provide a summary of this work, along with its implications for psy
chological functioning of the aging individual.
The majority of the book is devoted to describing the results of research on
the physiological changes in the human body with aging and to seeking explana
tions for these age effects. This description has been approached in such a way
as to make it readable for the nonspecialist, but also to focus on research issues
that will be useful reading for those who are currently working in these parti
cular areas. In addition, throughout the book, I have tried to develop some
themes regarding physiological and psychological adaptation during adulthood.
In each chapter I have included a section on the "psychological consequences" of
the aging of a particular system being reviewed. These sections should provide
impetus for research on specific ways in which physical and psychological pro
cesses are related in adulthood. It is my hope that, from the integrative approach
I have tried to follow, psychologists and other social scientists will gain an
appreciation of the importance of knowing about physical functioning and the
aging process and, in addition, those in the fields of medicine and physiology will
gain an appreciation of areas outside their own specialty and how they relate to
each other.
I would like to thank my colleagues-Stephen Buell, Andy Coyne, Paul
Coleman, Frank Katch, Mark Ordy, and my brother, Ronald Krauss-who have
provided me with valuable references, access to their own labs, and critiques
of particular chapters. I would also like to thank the graduate students at the
University of Rochester who shared with me their reactions to the manuscript
and provided valuable assistance, in particular, Lisa Elliot. The editorial and
production staff at Springer-Verlag have my gratitude for their encouragement
and help. My children, Stacey Whitbourne and Jennifer O'Brien, deserve recog-
Vlll Preface
nition for their admirable patience and understanding oftheir mother's obsession
with the word processor. Finally, I would like to acknowledge the support and
advice of my husband, Richard D. O'Brien, whose talents as a scientist and
author are incorporated throughout this book.
Susan Krauss Whitbourne
Contents
CHAPTER 1 Introduction.................................. 1
CHAPTER 2 Appearance and Movement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 11
CHAPTER 3 Cardiovascular System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 35
CHAPTER 4 Respiratory System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 51
CHAPTER 5 Digestive and Excretory Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 65
CHAPTER 6 Control Mechanisms: Endocrine System and
Autonomic Nervous System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. 87
CHAPTER 7 Reproductive System ........................... 107
CHAPTER 8 Central Nervous System ........................ 125
CHAPTER 9 Visual System ................................. 151
CHAPTER 10 Auditory System .............................. 175
CHAPTER 11 Somesthetic and Vestibular Systems .............. 191
CHAPTER 12 Gustatory and Olfactory Systems ................. 209
CHAPTER 13 Epilogue ..................................... 223
References .............................................. 237
Author Index ............................................ 281
Subject Index ............................................ 299
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
This book is intended to provide an overview of the aging of the human body in
adulthood, from postadolescence through old age, integrated with an exploration
of the possible consequences of these changes for the individual's psychological
adaptation and sense of well-being. It is the central thesis of this book that
changes in the body's functioning with age have the potential to influence the
adult's adaptation to the physical and social environment, which in turn can affect
the adult's sense of competence and self-esteem. The material addressed in this
chapter forms the basis for development of this central thesis throughout the
book in sections concerning "psychological consequences" of the various phys
iological changes described in each of the subsequent chapters. In addition,
this chapter will include a discussion of research issues in the physiology of
human aging. These are issues to which the reader needs to be sensitized before
approaching the individual chapters covering specific physiological systems.
Adaptation
The main focus of this book is on adaptation, both physiological and psycho
logical. Physiological adaptation involves the maintenance of an internal envi
ronment in which the body's systems can carry out their activities without threat
of destruction of any or all of the organism's cellular elements. The body's organ
systems are oriented toward maintaining life at all costs. If stress is placed upon
the body, from a disease entity or from severe environmental conditions, the
body's systems engage in counterregulatory tactics to preserve the integrity ofthe
organism's life. In addition to maximizing the ability of the organism to exercise
its physiological functions, physiological adapatation involves achieving the
body's maximum of sensory acuity, strength, energy, coordination, dexterity,
recuperative power, and immunity (Foote & Cottrell, 1955).
The relationship of aging to physiological adaptation would appear to be an
inverse one. Aging, by definition, involves the movement of the organism toward
death over the course of time. It is not known why the body ages or what causes
the body to age, except that all living systems must die (which is not a very
satisfactory answer). The empirical study of the physiology of aging is largely
oriented toward answering these very basic questions, but within the context of
2 1. Introduction
specific organ systems. In the course of this research, what has emerged is a pic
ture of the human body as making numerous physiological adaptations to the
changes in its integrity over time. Rather than simply accelerating downward year
by year until the end of life is reached, the body is actively integrating the
deleterious changes in its cells into new levels of organization in an attempt to
preserve life for as long as possible. While much of the physiology of aging invar
iably involves description of deleterious changes, there is also an accumulation of
literature on compensation within and across bodily systems.
Psychological adaptation is a concept not unlike physiological adaptation, in
that both processes are oriented toward maintaining the well-being of the indi
vidual. Both processes are also ones of which the individual in whom the adapta
tion is taking place can be aware, particularly when one of them fails to operate
effectively. However, they differ in that the substrate for psychological adapta
tion is not limited to the outcome of the activities of the body's life-support
systems. Instead, psychological adaptation is the outcome of the activities of the
individual within the individual's environment. The specific outcomes concern
whether or not the individual is able to operate effectively as an agent in that envi
ronment and achieve desired objectives of mastering the challenges that the indi
vidual perceives within that environment. This definition of psychological adap
tation is based on the concept of competence, defined by White (1959, p. 297) as
the "organism's capacity to interact effectively with its environment."
The position will be developed in this book that physiological adaptation pro
vides an important set of inputs to psychological adaptation, since the body's
ability to adapt to the stresses and changes associated with the aging process
directly affect the individual's ability to master the environment. Moreover, it is
assumed throughout this discussion that the product of the psychological adapta
tion process feeds directly into the individual's self-concept. This feeding in of
information about the self occurs in the form of descriptive statements ("I am this
type of person," "I have handled this situation in this manner") and evaluative
statements ("I am an effective person", "I am an incompetent person"). It is the
latter, evaluative, statements that are assumed to have the strongest impact on
feelings of well-being, since they are what contribute to psychological adaptation.
This position regarding the contribution of feelings of competence to psychologi
cal adaptation is basic to the literature on self-esteem (e.g., Franks & Marolla,
1976; Smith, 1974). Its applicability is particularly useful to the aging process,
because it can be assumed that much of the relevance to psychological adaptation
of the aging process is its effect on feelings of competence, a position that will be
elaborated on throughout this book.
The Bodily Self-Concept
The particular way in which psychological adaptation affects self-esteem is
thought to occur through the mechanism of the body image, or bodily self
concept. This component of the self-concept is one that has been addressed by
many theorists who write about the self, but its exact nature is still very elusive,
Adaptation 3
and even more so when considered in the context of how it is affected by the
physiological changes associated with aging. Nevertheless, the definitions of
body image, or bodily self-concept, together provide a sense of what is meant
with respect to psychological adaptation and feelings of bodily competence.
Cooley (1902), who is best known for inventing the term "looking-glass self"
seems to have literally meant bodily self, although this is not the usual interpreta
tion of the term. According to Cooley (1902, p. 184), the looking-glass self may
be regarded as being composed of the person's views of how others regard his or
her physical appearance: one's "face, figure, and dress." Thus, how we think we
look, and how we think others judge our appearance, are two of the components
of the self-image as it is reflected off others, according to Cooley.
Theorists on the self-concept since the time of Cooley have iterated this theme
that the "me" that is reflected from our own and others' views of our physical
attributes forms an important part of our overall self-esteem (Wylie, 1974).
Bodily identity also includes the sense that will be developed most explicitly in
this book, the self-evaluation of the effectiveness with which one's body is func
tioning (Back & Gergen, 1968; Epstein, 1973; L'Ecuyer, 1981).
Systematic treatment of bodily identity is found in theories and research deal
ing specifically with the body image, a tradition of empirical investigation that
dates back to Schilder's (1935/1950) work. The individual's image of his or her
body is considered to be a reflection of self-concept and personality and also to
be influenced by social factors, according to Schilder (1935/1950):
A body is always the expression of an ego and of a personality, and is in a world. Even a
preliminary answer to the problem of the body cannot be given unless we attempt a
preliminary answer about personality and world. (p. 304)
Conversely, Secord and Jourard (1953) regarded the individual's attitudes toward
the body to have influence over personality, and to be "integrally related to self
concept although identifiable as a separate aspect thereof" (p. 343).
Following this line of reasoning are Fisher and Cleveland (1958):
If by the term self-concept one means the whole range of complicated attitudes and fan
tasies an individual has about his identity, his life role, and his appearance, then, the two
constructs undoubtedly overlap considerably .... We definitely consider the body image
to be a condensed formulation or summary in body terms of a great many experiences the
individual has had in the course of defining his identity in the world ... the body image
is a sensitive indicator which registers many of the individual's basic social relationships,
especially those early involved in his development of a sense of identity. (p. 111)
The bidirectional role of the body image as intervening between the environ
ment and the self-concept, alluded to by Schilder (1935/1950) and also by Fisher
and Cleveland (1958), was stressed by Werner (1965): "One may see in it [the
body schema] a device which ... mediates between the concrete tangible body
and the abstract self-concept; between the visual tangible environment and the
abstractly elusive self" (p. 6). The position put forth in the volume on body
perception edited by Wapner and Werner (1965) was expressed most clearly by