Table Of ContentTerrigenous Clastic Depositional Systems
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W.E. Galloway D.K. Hobday
Terrigenous Clastic
Depositional Systems
Applications to Fossil Fuel
and Groundwater Resources
Second Completely Revised, Updated, and Enlarged Edition
With 288 Figures and 18 Tables
Springer
Prof. William E. Galloway
University of Texas at Austin
Department of Geological Sciences
Austin, TX 78712, USA
Dr. David K. Hobday
Earth Sciences and Resources Institute
1515 E. Mineral Square
Salt Lake City, UT 84112, USA
ISBN-13: 978-3-642-64659-1 e-ISBN-13: 978-3-642-61018-9
001: 10.1007/978-3-642-61018-9
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data. Galloway. William E. Terrigenous clastic depositional systems:
applications to fossil fuel and groundwater resources/William E. Galloway, David K. Hobday. - 2nd completely rev ..
updated, and enl. ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references (p. 445-484) and index. ISBN 0-387-60232-1 (hardcover).
- ISBN 3-540-60232-1 (hardcover) 1. Sedimentation and deposition. 1. Hobday, David K. II. Title. QE571.G27
1996 553.2 - dc20 95-47132
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Preface to the Second Edition
Nonrenewable energy resources, comprising fossil fuels and uranium, are not ran
domly distributed within the Earth's crust. They formed in response to a complex array
of geologic controls, notably the genesis of the sedimentary rocks that host most
commercial energy resources. It is this genetic relationship between economic re
sources and environment that forms the basis for this book. Our grouping of petro
leum, coal, uranium, and ground water may appear to be incongruous or artificial. But
our basic premise is that these ostensibly disparate resources share common genetic
attributes and that the sedimentological principles governing their natural distributions
and influencing their recovery are fundamentally similar. Our combined careers have
focused on these four resources, and our experiences in projects worldwide reveal that
certain recurring geologic factors are important in controlling the distribution of com
mercial accumulations and subsurface fluid flow. These critical factors include the
shape and stability of the receiving basin, the major depositional elements and their
internal detail, and the modifications during burial that are brought about in these
sediments by pressure, circulating fluids, heating, and chemical reaction.
Since the first edition of this book in 1983, there has been a quantum leap in the
volume of literature devoted to genetic stratigraphy and refinement of sedimentologi
cal principles and a commensurate increase in the application of these concepts to
resource exploration and development. Two wholly new chapters, 11 and 16, have
been added to accommodate these advances, two chapters (7 and 8) have been com
pletely rewritten, and Chapters 3, 6, 9, 10, and 13 have been substantially revised.
We review the spectrum of terrigenous (land-derived or siliciclastic as opposed to
in-place or biochemical) clastic depositional systems and their component genetic
facies, with emphasis on subsurface as well as field recognition. These range from the
most proximal, subaerial, and generally coarse-grained alluvial-fan systems through
fluvial, deltaic, shore-zone, and shelf environments to the slope and base-of-slope
system (Chapters 3 through 8). The lacustrine environment (Chapter 9) may contain
elements of all of these systems but is considered separately. Eolian systems (Chapter
10) constitute a special case, which has received belated attention as. a repository of
major commercial energy resources. This chapter is followed by a synthesis of deposi
tional systems and genetic facies in the context of sequence stratigraphy (Chapter 11).
We then examine ground-water flow systems and how they evolve in relation to
changing climatic regime, structural configuration, degree of compaction, diagenesis,
and recharge (Chapter 12). These chapters set the stage for detailed accounts of coal,
uranium, and petroleum resources in terms of their paleoenvironmental setting, mode
of emplacement, preservation, and subsequent transformations. The relationship of
petroleum to clastic depositional systems (Chapter 15) is widely documented, so only
an overview is possible here. However, we cite some important studies from mature
hydrocarbon provinces that provide excellent models and new insights for less-ex
plored or frontier basins. In contrast to petroleum, coal and sedimentary uranium have
only relatively recently attracted a high level of detailed genetic sedimentological
analysis. Analysis of coal basins in particular was retarded by undue emphasis on
descriptive stratigraphy and formal classification. Although general environments of
VI Preface to the Second Edition
coal formation have been known since the last century, it was the detailed studies of
modern environments, including an appreciation of peat-mire evolution, that led to
comprehensive genetic and predictive models for coal. These coal models are currently
undergoing revision and refinement as a result of new studies of mire ecology and
organic facies development and are benefitting from the application of recent advances
in genetic stratigraphic sequence analysis (Chapter 13). Sandstone-type uranium em
placement (Chapter 14) provides a classic example of the principles elaborated in this
book as it requires a particular combination of sedimentological framework, geochem
istry, and fluid flow, all controlled by the depositional environment. Finally, we synthe
size the current information base on the rapidly developing field of reservoir and
aquifer characterization (Chapter 16). Optimal commercial development of hydrocar
bons and sediment-hosted minerals, with due regard to broader environmental issues,
as well as sustainable development of ground-water resources, represents a new and
expanding area of geologic endeavor.
The emphasis throughout is on principles or concepts, backed by our own experi
ence and reference to other workers, rather than a comprehensive catalog of recent
progress. We believe that this application of genetic stratigraphic/sedimentologic prin
ciples and techniques will increasingly be viewed as indispensable in these extractive
and resource-management industries. Our targeted readership of advanced students
and industry professionals will find that the concepts and procedures we advocate
provide a basis for advancing their understanding of the genetically determined distri
butions of sedimentary rocks, particularly sandstones, and the relationship of petro
leum, energy mineral resources, and ground water to these highly variable but largely
predictable sedimentary rock geometries and properties. This unifying theme, and the
successful transfer of technologies and principles from the upstream energy sector to
the environmental industry, make this book equally relevant to scientists and students
concerned with ground water as a resource in its own right, and with problems of
shallow subsurface contamination. After all, neither hydrologists nor petroleum geolo
gists and engineers should be primarily concerned with the rocks themselves, but in the
fluids they contain, and the effects on fluid flow of the permeability distributions within
unconsolidated sediments and sedimentary rocks.
Our views are necessarily prejudiced by our own backgrounds, but we acknowledge
the prevailing state of the art in basin analysis, especially the relevance of geologic
conditions to the distribution of petroleum, fuel minerals, and ground water. We
present a deliberate bias toward examples from our own careers, generally as part of
teams within both industry and academia. We have benefitted greatly from exten
sive interaction with our colleagues of diverse geologic affinities and views on five
continents.
January 1996 W.E. Galloway
D.K. Hobday
Preface to the First Edition
The reserves, or extractable fraction, of the fuel-mineral endowment are sufficient to
supply the bulk of the world's energy requirements for the immediately forseeable
future - well into the next century according to even the most pessimistic predictions.
But increasingly sophisticated exploration concepts and technology must be employed
to maintain and, if possible, add to the reserve base. Most of the world's fuel-mineral
resources are in sedimentary rocks. Any procedure or concept that helps describe,
understand, and predict the external geometry and internal attributes of major sedi
mentary units can therefore contribute to discovery and recovery of coal, uranium, and
petroleum.
While conceding the desirability of renewable and nonpolluting energy supply from
gravitational, wind, or solar sources, the widespread deployment of these systems lies
far in the future - thus the continued commercial emphasis on conventional nonrenew
able fuel mineral resources, even though their relative significance will fluctuate with
time. For example, a decade ago the prognostications for uranium were uniformly
optimistic. But in the early 1980s the uranium picture is quite sombre, although
unlikely to remain permanently depressed. Whether uranium soars to the heights of
early expectations remains to be seen. Problems of waste disposal and public accep
tance persist. Fusion reactors may ultimately eliminate the need for uranium in power
generation, but for the next few decades there will be continued demand for uranium
to fuel existing power plants and those that come on stream.
This book is, to some extent, a hybrid. It is directed toward the practicing explora
tion and development geologist who is, of necessity, something of a generalist. How
ever, the stress on process and principle may also make this a suitable text for courses
in resource geology.
Our grouping of coal, uranium, and petroleum may appear to be incongruous and
artificial. However, our basic premise is that there are common genetic attributes
shared by all three, and that the sedimentological principles governing their distribu
tion are fundamentally similar. We have both had geologic careers divided among all
three of the fuel minerals. Factors that we have found to be important include deposi
tional processes and environments and their resultant genetic facies, interrelationships
of genetic facies within depositional systems, early postdepositional modifications by
circulating ground water, and, finally, the changes that take place at depth as sedimen
tary basins evolve in response to tectonic and regional hydrologic controls.
In many instances the paleoenvironmental factor is preeminent in controlling the
distribution of fuel minerals. The origins of peat and both syngenetic and placer
uranium are directly related to depositional environment. Peat is subsequently modi
fied to coal by burial and heating during the normal sequence of basin evolution.
However, many attempts to relate fuel-mineral deposits to genetic facies associa
tions alone have met with mixed success. Sedimentary facies with apparently all of the
necessary attributes for hosting fuel minerals commonly prove to be singularly barren,
whereas some rich deposits in ostensibly unfavorable host facies defy conventional
explanation. These exceptions indicate the need to consider additional factors, some of
which may not be reflected in static facies elements. For example. it was recognized 30
VIII Preface to the First Edition
years ago that the role of postdepositional ground-water flow is crucial in sandstone
type uranium mineralization. Hydrologic setting is important in peat genesis, and
critical to its preservation as coal; it may even have influenced the distribution of placer
uranium in early Precambrian Witwatersrand-type algal mats. Thus, differences in
ground-water circulation arising from topographic, structural, or climatic controls
explain differences in uranium mineralization in sandstones of similar origin. They may
also explain mutually exclusive distributions of coal and epigenetic uranium in identi
cal, coeval facies in different parts of a sedimentary basin. For these reasons, we
summarize principles of ground-water flow in large sedimentary basins and explore
implications for fuel-mineral genesis.
Numerous excellent textbooks and other compilations are devoted to sedimentary
facies, environments, and processes, reflecting the burgeoning interest and involve
ment of geologists in these fields. There has been a corresponding recent proliferation
of literature on fuel minerals from the standpoint of their geographic distribution,
regional geologic setting, host rock associations, and economic and engineering aspects
of their exploitation. This book attempts to bridge the gap between process-related
studies of sedimentary rocks and the more traditional economic geology of commercial
deposits of coal, uranium, and petroleum. Due attention is paid to subsurface tech
niques which, integrated with outcrop data, enable the most realistic reconstructions of
genetic stratigraphy, and offer the greatest application in exploration. After reviewing
depositional systems and their component genetic facies with emphasis on field and
subsurface recognition, we examine ground-water flow systems - how they evolve in
relation to changing structural configuration, consolidation, climatic regime, and to
pography in the recharge area. This sets the stage for an account of the associated fuel
minerals in terms of their paleoenvironmental setting, emplacement, and subsequent
transformations.
Our views are necessarily prejudiced by our own experience, but we attempt to do
justice to the prevailing state of the art in basin analysis. Prodigious volumes have been
published on the relationship of petroleum to clastic depositional systems, so only an
overview is possible here. However, we document important studies in mature hydro
carbon provinces that provide excellent models for exploration in less-explored basins.
In contrast, with a few conspicuous exceptions, coal and sedimentary uranium have
only recently attracted the same level of detailed attention from sedimentologists. This
stems in part from the early dominance of petroleum as a fuel, the temporary eclipse
of coal, and the relatively recent emergence of uranium; and probably also from an
overemphasis on descriptive stratigraphy, particularly in coal basins. The burgeoning
studies of sedimentary uranium have presently reached a plateau, which permits a
fairly comprehensive synthesis. Although general environments of coal formation have
been known since the last century, it was only with detailed studies of modern fluvial
and deltaic environments, starting with the Mississippi, that predictive models were
developed. These coal models are currently undergoing considerable refinement.
Those that we describe have all shown economic application in exploration and mine
development.
The importance of sedimentary facies in affecting the quality and extraction of fuel
minerals is also being more widely appreciated. For example, the roof and floor
properties of coal mines are largely determined by subfacies characteristics. Knowl
edge of the depositional framework and associated fluid flow and engineering prop
erties has long been important in hydrocarbon production. Progressively more
sophisticated geological input is used in genetic-predictive modeling, and this trend is
likely to increase as reserves become depleted.
Compilation of a book which focuses on the geology and mineral deposits of many
parts of the world brings one face to face with the problem of units of measurement.
There is no ready solution to the complexity of English and metric units applied in
Preface to the First Edition IX
different countries, or in the same country at different times, or for different commodi
ties. We have attempted to cite measurements in their original units and to provide
equivalencies in parentheses. Where original figures are rounded off, conversions are
similarly rounded. In reality, the resource geologist must remain, for some time to
come, conversant in both English and metric.
W.E. Galloway
D.K. Hobday
Acknowledgments
The breadth of subject material included in any synthesis of the sedimentology and
stratigraphy of terrigenous clastic deposits obviously extends far beyond the experi
ence of two authors. We have both been graced with numerous colleagues and friends
who have been willing to invest their time and share their knowledge. Without their
help, our labors would have been greater and our results less fruitful. To each one we
extend sincere gratitude.
Milo Backus, Ian Bryant, Elisabeth Kosters, Marc Marshall, and Virginia Pendleton
provided illustrations and references. Several figures that have appeared in publica
tions of the Bureau of Economic Geology were generously located and made available
to us by Dick Dillon, Chief Cartographer.
Drafts of various chapters were reviewed and greatly improved in content and
clarity by Mike Blum, Ron Boyd, Dick Buffler, Bruce Cairncross, Jed Damuth, Frank
Ethridge, Robert Finley, Doug Hamilton, Gary Kocurek, Cliff Mallett, John
McPherson, Andrew Miall, Joe Moore, Bob Morton, Hans Nelson, Robert Ressetar,
William Ross, Jack Sharp, Michelle Smyth, Don Swift and Tony Tanka. Although we
did not follow every suggestion, their comments always necessitated thoughtful recon
sideration of our proposition, often resulting in new insights.
Preparation of the manuscript incorporated the work of several professionals who
patiently persevered over the long haul with us. Dennis Trombatore, Geological
Sciences librarian at the University of Texas, was never defeated in the search for a
reference, no matter how obscure. Patrice Porter drafted all of our new illustrations
with patience, skill, and artistry. Jim Jaworski contributed his timely and often creative
photographic talent to the task of graphics preparation. Betty Kurtz created the com
plex tables, completed inserts and corrections, and aided immensely in the last push to
complete the manuscript. Amanda Masterson, a seemingly indefatigable editor, re
viewed each chapter and the final manuscript speedily and efficiently, turning up
hundreds of inconsistencies, fuzzy language, and typos too tricky for the spell-checker.
Finally, we acknowledge support for travel, time, and logistical needs provided by the
Morgan Davis Centennial Professorship in Petroleum Geology, Department of Geo
logical Sciences, the University of Texas at Austin (WEG), and by the Earth Sciences
and Resources Institute at the University of Utah and the University of South Carolina
(DKH). John Barwis read the final manuscript and helped detect various errors and
omissions.
William E. Galloway
David K. Hobday
