Table Of ContentF O U R T H E D I T I O N
Teaching Language
and Literacy
Preschool Through
the Elementary Grades
James F. Christie
Arizona State University
Billie Jean Enz
Arizona State University
Carol Vukelich
University of Delaware
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Christie, James F.
Teaching language and literacy : preschool through the elementary grades / James Christie,
Billie Jean Enz, Carol Vukelich. — 4th ed.
p. cm.
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-705762-7
ISBN-10: 0-13-705762-8
1. Language arts (Elementary)—Case studies. 2. Language arts (Preschool)—Case studies.
I. Enz, Billie. II. Vukelich, Carol. III. Title.
LB1576.C5564 2010
372.6—dc22
2010004613
Printed in the United States of America
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 RRD-VA 14 13 12 11 10
ISBN-10: 0-13-705762-8
ISBN-13: 978-0-13-705762-7
A B O U T T H E A U T H O R S
James F.Christieis a professor of Advanced Studies in Educa-
tion Policy, Leadership, and Curriculum at Arizona State Uni-
versity, where he teaches courses in early childhood education.
His research interests include early literacy development and
children's play. Dr. Christie has co-authored Helping Young
Children Learn Language and Literacy, 3rd ed. (2008) and
Play, Development, and Early Education (2005). He has been
co-director of Early Reading First projects in San Luis and
Somerton, AZ; Bullhead City, AZ; and Gallup, NM.
Billie Jean Enz is a professor of early childhood education in
the College of Teacher Education and Leadership at Arizona
State University, where she teaches courses in early childhood
education. Her research interests include language and literacy
development and family literacy. Dr. Enz has co-authored Help-
ing Young Children Learn Language and Literacy, 3rd ed.
(2008) and Assessing Preschool Literacy Development (Inter-
national Reading Association, 2009). She is a co-principle
investigator for First Things First External Evaluation for Ari-
zona, which is a state-wide early childhood initiative.
Carol Vukelichis the L. Sandra and Bruce L. Hammonds Pro-
fessor in Teacher Education and Director of the Delaware Cen-
ter for Teacher Education at the University of Delaware. Her
research and teaching interests include children’s early literacy
development and teachers’ professional development, specifi-
cally coaching and reflection strategies. Dr. Vukelich has served
as President of the Association for Childhood Education Inter-
national and the International Reading Association’s Literacy
Development in Young Children Special Interest Group. She
was a founder of the Delaware Writing Project, and serves as
one of its co-directors. In addition to this book, other books by
Dr. Vukelich include Helping Young Children Learn Language
and Literacy, 2nd ed. (Allyn & Bacon, 2008); Building a Foun-
dation for Preschool Literacy: Effective Instruction for Chil-
dren’s Reading and Writing Development, 2nd ed., (2009); and Achieving EXCELLENCE
in Preschool Literacy Instruction(edited with Laura M. Justice, 2008). She works closely
with colleagues Martha J. Buell and Myae Han on two Early Reading First projects.
iii
C O N T E N T S
Preface xiii
PA RT O N E Foundations 1
1
Foundations of Language and Literacy 3
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 4
Focus Questions 4
National Literacy Policies and Initiatives 5
The Standards Movement 6 / Elementary and Secondary Education Act
(Formerly Known as the No Child Left Behind Act) 8
Reading First 9 / Good Start, Grow Smart 10 / Early Reading
First 13
Using Scientifically Based Reading Research to Make Curricular
andInstructional Decisions 13
The National Reading Panel 14 / The National Early Literacy Panel 15
A Continuum of Instructional Approaches or “The Reading Wars” 16
Emergent Literacy Approach 16 / Scientifically Based Reading Research
Approach 17 / Blended Instruction: A Comprehensive Literacy
Program 19
A Comprehensive Literacy Instructional Program 23
Effective Teachers Provide Children with a Print-Rich Classroom
Environment 23 / Effective Teachers Demonstrate, Model, and Scaffold
Instruction 24 / Effective Teachers Explicitly Teach Children Skills That
Research Supports as Key Elements of Reading, Writing, and Speaking 24
Effective Teachers Read to Children Daily and Encourage Them to Read Books on
Their Own 25 / Effective Teachers Provide Opportunities for Children to
Collaborate and Help Each Other Learn about Language and Literacy 26
Effective Teachers Provide Opportunities for Children to Use Language and Literacy
for Real Purposes and Audiences 27 / Effective Teachers Support Children’s
Experimentations with Print 28 / Effective Teachers Use Multiple Forms of
Assessment to Find Out What Children Know and Can Do and They Use That Data
toMake Instructional Decisions 28 / Effective Teachers Recognize That Some
iv
CONTENTS v
Children Need Explicit Instruction in Order to Become Proficient Readers and
Writers—and They Provide the Needed Intensive Intervention 29 / Effective
Teachers Respect and Make Accommodations for Children’s Developmental, Cultural,
and Linguistic Diversity 30 / Effective Teachers Build Partnerships with
Families 32 / Effective Teachers Recognize the Importance of Reflecting on
Their Instructional Decisions 33
Summary 33
Linking Knowledge to Practice 36
2
Oral Language Development 37
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 37
Focus Questions 38
Language Acquisition Theories 38
Behaviorist Perspective 39 / Nativist Perspective 40
Social-Interactionist Perspective 40 / A Biological
Perspective 42
Linguistic Vocabulary Lesson 42
Phonology 43 / Morphology 43 / Syntax 44 / Semantics 45
Pragmatics 45
Observing the Development of Children’s Language 47
Birth to One Month 47 / Two to Three Months 48 / Four to
Six Months 48 / Six to Nine Months 49 / Nine to Twelve Months 50
Twelve to Eighteen Months 50 / Eighteen to Twenty-four Months 51
Twenty-four to Thirty-six Months 51 / Three to Five Years 53
Four to FiveYears 53
What Is Normal Language Development? 54
Factors Contributing to Variation in Rate of Language Acquisition 54
Gender Differences 54 / Socioeconomic Level 56 / Cultural
Influences 57 / Medical Concerns 57 / Congenital Language
Disorders 59
Disfluency 59 / Pronunciation 59
English Language Learning 60
Family Focus:Developing Language Over Time 62
Summary 64
Linking Knowledge to Practice 66
vi CONTENTS
3
Family Literacy 67
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 68
Focus Questions 68
Home Talk:A Natural Context for Learning and Using
Language 68
Encouraging Personal Narratives 70 / Reading Storybooks 73
Television as a Language Tool 75
Time 75 / Choosing Programming for Children 76
Active Viewing 76
Home Literacy Experiences 76
Family Focus:Parent Workshops 79
Case Studies 83
Tiffany 83
Alicia 88
Alicia’s Early Literacy Development in Spanish 88
Alicia’s Home Language and Literacy 88 / Alicia’s Literacy
Developmentin Kindergarten 89 / Writing 89 / Reading 90
Summary 92
Linking Knowledge to Practice 93
PA RT T WO Early Language and Literacy Instruction 95
4
Facilitating Early Language Learning 97
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 98
Focus Questions 99
Teacher Discourse 99
Reciprocal Discussions and Conversations 101
Contexts That Encourage Language Use 104
Group Activities 104 / Learning Centers 105 / Dramatic Play 106
Language-Centered Activities for Children 111
Sharing 111 / Storytelling 112 / Language Play 113 / Songs and
Finger Plays 114
CONTENTS vii
Vocabulary Instruction 115
Family Focus:Sharing the Curriculum 117
Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners 122
Strategies for Children with Special Needs:Speech Delays 124
Summary 125
Linking Knowledge to Practice 127
5
Emergent Literacy Strategies 128
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 129
Focus Questions 129
Functional Literacy Activities 129
Bringing Environmental Print into the Classroom 130
Functional Print Connected with Classroom Activities 132
Labels 132 / Lists 132 / Directions 132 / Schedules 134
Calendars 134 / Messages 134 / Sign-In and Sign-Up Lists 134
Inventory Lists 136
Sharing Literature with Children 136
Selecting Good Books for Children 137 / Classroom Library
Centers 138
Books 139 / Physical Characteristics 140
Effective Story-Reading Strategies 141
Family Focus:Sharing Instructional Materials and Offering
Guidance 143
Classroom Read-Alouds 144 / Shared Reading 147
Linking Literacy and Play 150
Literacy-Enriched Dramatic Play Centers 150 / Preparatory Experiences 152
Teacher Involvement in Play 152
Shared Writing 153
Group Stories 154 / Individual Experience Stories 156 / Interactive
Writing 157
Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners 159
Strategies for Children with Special Needs 160
Summary 162
Linking Knowledge to Practice 164
viii CONTENTS
6
Teaching Early Reading and Writing 165
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 166
Focus Questions 166
Early Reading Instruction 167
Phonological and Phonemic Awareness 168
Phonological Awareness 170 / Phonemic Awareness 174
Alphabet Knowledge 175
Songs 178 / Letter Charts 179 / Alphabet Word Walls 180
Games 180
Phonics Instruction 181 / Print Awareness 182
Teaching Concepts aboutPrint 182 / Key Words 184
Early Writing Instruction 185
The Context for Writing: The Writing Center 186
Gather the Needed Materials 186 / Arrange the
Materials 187 / Computers and Word Processing 187
Teachers’Role 188
Writing in Other Centers 189 / The Writing Workshop 189
Focus Lessons 191 / Writing Time 191 / Group Share
Time 192
Publishing Children’s Writing 192
Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners 194
Family Focus:Creating a Book Nook and Author’s
Corner 195
Strategies for Children with Special Needs:Writing
Instruction 196
Summary 196
Linking Knowledge to Practice 198
7
Assessing Early Literacy:Finding Out What Young
Children Know and Can Do 199
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 200
Focus Questions 200
Determining What Children Know and Can Do 200
What Is Important for Teachers to Know about Children’s Literacy
Development? 201 / Two Kinds of Assessment 202
CONTENTS ix
Ongoing Assessment 203
Ongoing Assessment Tools 204
Anecdotal Notes 204 / Vignettes or Teacher Reflections 204
Checklists 206 / Video and Audio Recordings 208
Products or Work Samples 208
Addressing Storage Problems 208
On-Demand Assessment 209
Standardized Tests 209
Criterion-Referenced Tests 212 / Norm-Referenced Tests 215
Family Focus:Sharing Assessment Results With Parents 219
Assessing English Language Learners 222
Using Assessment Data to Plan Early Literacy Instruction 224
Summary 224
Linking Knowledge to Practice 225
PA RT T H R E E Elementary Grade Literacy Instruction 227
8
Elementary Reading:Expanding the Foundation for
Ongoing Literacy Learning 229
Before Reading This Chapter,Think About ... 230
Focus Questions 230
Understanding the Reading Process 231
Psychological Contributors to Reading 232
Word Identification 232
Graphophonic Cues 233 / Morphemic Analysis Cues 233
Context Cues 233
Word Meaning 237 / Connected Text 243
General Demands 243
Classroom Events 248
Determining a Schedule 248 / Selecting and Using Materials 248
Considering Reading Options 250 / Providing Instruction 251
Assessing 252
Attributes of a Successful Reading Teacher 253
Strategies for Teaching English Language Learners 253
Strategies for Children with Special Needs 255
