Table Of ContentTEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND USING ENGLISH
AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN EGYPT:
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHING APPROACHES
AND SOURCES OF CHANGE
by
Hana A. El-Fiki
A thesis submitted in conformity with the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning
Ontario Institute for Studies in Education
University of Toronto
© Copyright by Hana A. El-Fiki 2012
TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE AND USING ENGLISH
AS A MEDIUM OF INSTRUCTION IN EGYPT:
TEACHERS’ PERCEPTIONS OF TEACHING APPROACHES
AND SOURCES OF CHANGE
Doctor of Philosophy, 2012
Hana A. El-Fiki
Graduate Department of Curriculum, Teaching and Learning
University of Toronto
Abstract
With the internationalization of English there is a growing demand for high quality English language
education around the globe, particularly in non-English speaking countries. Consequently, there is an
increasing demand worldwide for competent English teachers and more effective approaches to
teaching and teacher professional development. In Egypt, in a context of educational reform where
communicative language teaching approaches have been adopted as a way to improve teaching, this
study explores how teachers perceive and respond to this call for change in instructional practices. It
examines the professional development experiences of a group of English as a foreign language
(EFL) and English-medium subject (EMS) teachers working in the private and public basic
educational sectors in Cairo, Egypt. The research questions focus on teachers’ perceptions of change
and improvement occurring in their teaching practices, their beliefs on the sources of change
available to them, and the perspectives of school principals and professional development providers
on teachers’ change prospects.
In this study, a multi-method approach was applied, with a teacher survey administered to 174
teachers; in-depth, semi-structured interviews with 36 teachers, 15 principals, and 8 professional
development (PD) providers; field observation; and examination of relevant documents and artifacts.
The analysis of data is informed by sociocultural theory perspectives (Vygotsky, 1978).
ii
The findings indicate that (1) teachers perceive great change in their practices, though their
conceptions and implementation of communicative approaches are context-bound, (2) teaching is
influenced by various professional learning opportunities, and (3) change or lack thereof results from
teachers’ adaptability to their local contextual demands through a process of resistance, resilience, or
maintaining the status quo.
The findings highlight the centrality of teachers in change processes.They suggest that change results
from a process of interaction between teachers and other individuals within their community, and
that the nature of change as experienced by the participants is shaped by a multitude of contextual
factors. The implications of the study include the need to replace the technical conception of
professional development with a more ecological orientation, to establish professional learning
communities among teachers and within schools, and to establish a coherent framework for change
initiatives.
iii
Acknowledgements
This research project would not have been possible without the support, encouragement and
guidance of many people. First, sincere gratitude goes to my thesis supervisor, Dr. Antoinette Gagné
for her mentorship and guidance at every stage of this research journey. Thank you for your wisdom,
support and kind words of praise and encouragement that made me a better educator.
I am deeply grateful for the generous support and guidance from my thesis committee
members, Dr. Jim Cummins, Dr. Eunice Jang and Dr. Sarfaroz Niyozov. My sincere thanks to
Dr. Margaret Early and Dr. Kathy Broad for being on my examining committee. This group has
helped me to view my work through different lenses, improving its quality and message.
I thank all my participants, teachers, principals and teacher educators for generously giving
their time and honestly sharing their voices. I appreciated them welcoming me into their institutions.
Their stories truly touched me and their words are the heart and soul of this work.
Many thanks to my mother for the unconditional support and prayers, and for her being there
for me every time I called for help. I can hardly find the words to express my deepest thanks to my
husband, Dr. Aly Emam, who helped me at every step to accomplish this project, for sharing his
expertise in technology as I learned to use research software, and for taking the time and efforts to
back me up when things got difficult. Finally, to my twin sons, Youssef and Ibrahim, with whom I
was blessed by the time I began my Ph.D. journey, I owe my most heartfelt thanks for their
understanding, and for letting go of me at times when they needed me most.
iv
Table of Contents
Abstract.................................................................................................................................................ii
Acknowledgements..............................................................................................................................iv
List of Acronyms...............................................................................................................................xiii
Prologue: Researching Change in Pre-revolution Egypt......................................................................1
Chapter 1 Introduction..........................................................................................................................2
The Issue...............................................................................................................................................2
Rationale...............................................................................................................................................3
Purpose of Study and Research Questions............................................................................................4
The Researcher......................................................................................................................................5
Research Organization and Overview..................................................................................................7
Chapter 2: Research Context................................................................................................................9
Egypt: Facts and Figures.......................................................................................................................9
Egypt as a Research Context...............................................................................................................11
Development and Education in Egypt................................................................................................13
The Role of English in Egypt’s Modernization..................................................................................14
School Systems: Structure and Types.................................................................................................16
The Public Sector............................................................................................................................18
The Private Sector...........................................................................................................................21
Trends in English Language Teaching Across Sectors.......................................................................23
The Teaching Force: Teacher Education and Professionalism...........................................................25
The Professional Development Industry.............................................................................................27
Forms and Approaches...................................................................................................................27
Chapter 3: Literature Review..............................................................................................................34
Teacher Professional Development: Sources and Avenues of Change..............................................34
Introduction.....................................................................................................................................34
Terms and Definitions....................................................................................................................34
Professional Development in a Shifting Field....................................................................................36
Professional Development in a New Light.....................................................................................37
Avenues and Pursuits of Teacher Professional Development............................................................39
Individually Guided Model.............................................................................................................40
Observation / Assessment...............................................................................................................40
Involvement in a Development / Improvement Process.................................................................42
Training...........................................................................................................................................43
Inquiry.............................................................................................................................................43
Which PD Option Is Most Effective?.................................................................................................45
Principles of Effective Professional Development.........................................................................45
Positioning Teachers in the PD Enterprise.........................................................................................46
Teacher Readiness and Choice.......................................................................................................47
Teachers’ Goals and Needs.............................................................................................................48
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Teachers’ Voices and Visions on Change and Development.........................................................49
Reflectivity and Collaboration........................................................................................................51
Success and the Wider Perspective of PD..........................................................................................54
Chapter 4 Theoretical Frameworks.....................................................................................................57
Introduction.........................................................................................................................................57
Sociocultural Theory and Teacher Education: Recent Shifts.............................................................57
Historical Overview on Teacher Learning..........................................................................................59
The Craft Model..............................................................................................................................59
The Applied Science Model...........................................................................................................60
The Reflective Model.....................................................................................................................61
Sociocultural Theory Perspectives on Teacher Learning...................................................................62
Sociocultural Theory as an Analytic Tool......................................................................................62
Teacher Learning: A Process of Conceptual Development............................................................63
The Key Constructs of Sociocultual Theory...................................................................................64
Conceptual Development and Reflectivity: A Framework.................................................................72
Reflectivity......................................................................................................................................72
Wallace’s Reflective Model............................................................................................................74
Chapter 5: Research Design and Methodology..................................................................................79
Principles of Design............................................................................................................................79
Research Sites.....................................................................................................................................80
School Sites.....................................................................................................................................80
Design: A Multi-method Approach................................................................................................82
Teacher Survey...............................................................................................................................85
Interview Protocols.........................................................................................................................86
Research Procedures and Data Collection..........................................................................................86
School Selection.............................................................................................................................86
Access to Schools...........................................................................................................................87
Overview of Research Population..................................................................................................87
School Principals............................................................................................................................88
Teacher Participants........................................................................................................................92
Professional Development Program Providers.............................................................................104
Other Data Sources.......................................................................................................................108
Data Sets and Analysis......................................................................................................................110
The Quantitative Set: Survey Data and Analysis..........................................................................112
The Qualitative Set: Interviews, Notes and Documents...............................................................112
Reciprocity........................................................................................................................................119
All Participant Groups..................................................................................................................119
Teacher Reciprocity......................................................................................................................120
School-Principal Reciprocity........................................................................................................120
Professional Development Program Providers.............................................................................120
Conclusion........................................................................................................................................121
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Chapter 6 Teacher Perceptions on Change of Practice: A Change Within
and Across Paradigm........................................................................................................................122
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................122
Has Change Occurred and if so, to What Extent?............................................................................122
A Drift Towards Great Change.....................................................................................................122
Is There Cross-group Difference in Teacher Response?..................................................................125
Group Difference..........................................................................................................................125
Significant Group Difference on Confidence...............................................................................129
Source of Difference: The International Teacher Group..............................................................131
How Do Teachers Conceptualize Their Change?.............................................................................132
Introduction...................................................................................................................................132
Cross-sector Conceptions of Change and Improvement: Same Label,
Different Product..........................................................................................................................132
What Does Change of Practice Mean? Insights Into the Process of Change...............................135
Conclusion: The Change Within and Across Paradigms..................................................................148
Chapter 7: Teacher Perceptions on Sources of Change: A Response through
Resistance, Resilience and Maintaining the Status Quo...................................................................151
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................151
How Do Teachers Perceive the Influence of Change Sources on Their Teaching?.........................152
Inclination Towards the Perception of Great Influence................................................................152
Same Professional Structure, Different Services: Qualitative Insights........................................155
Is There Cross-context Difference in Teachers’ Perceptions on Sources?.......................................160
Cross-group Difference.................................................................................................................160
Significant Group Difference on Collaboration............................................................................162
The Source of Difference: The Public Arabic Group...................................................................163
Qualitative Insights: Collaboration with Colleagues....................................................................164
Source Influence: Brief.................................................................................................................170
What Stance Do Teachers Take From Their Various Change Initiatives?.......................................171
The Government Sector Teachers: Adaptability Through Resistance..........................................171
The National School Teachers: Adaptability Through Resilience...................................................183
Positive Attitudes: A Functional Perception.................................................................................183
Teachers’ Beliefs on Source Efficacy: Favorable Views.............................................................185
Other Findings: Unspecified Needs..............................................................................................191
Context Brief.................................................................................................................................192
The International Teacher Group: Maintaining the Status Quo........................................................193
Attitudes Toward Change of Practice: Satisfaction with the Status Quo.....................................193
Other Findings: The School Culture.............................................................................................198
Context Brief.................................................................................................................................198
Conclusion........................................................................................................................................199
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Chapter 8: The Roles and Perspectives of Principals and PD Providers..........................................203
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................203
The Position of School Principals.....................................................................................................203
The Public School Sector..............................................................................................................203
The National Private Context.......................................................................................................210
The International System..............................................................................................................220
The Roles and Perceptions of PD Providers.....................................................................................227
Introduction...................................................................................................................................227
The Perceived Substance of Change: Methods and Strategy Training.........................................228
Provider-teacher Relationship: Barriers and Bridges...................................................................232
The Position of Teachers in the PD Industry................................................................................234
Chapter 9 Discussion: Context as a Sphere of Competence Development and Change..................236
Introduction.......................................................................................................................................236
Competency Development and Change of Practice: Analytical Framework...................................237
Phase 1: Cross-context Analysis.......................................................................................................240
The Public Sector..........................................................................................................................241
The National School Context........................................................................................................242
International Context....................................................................................................................243
Phase 2: Competence Development.............................................................................................244
Phase 2: Cross-context Analysis.......................................................................................................247
Government Sector: Non-learning Experiences...........................................................................248
The National School Context: Non-reflective Learning...............................................................250
The International Context: No Consideration of Learning Opportunities....................................253
Outcomes of Teacher Experiences...............................................................................................254
Cross-context Findings.................................................................................................................255
The Government Context: Custodial Responses and Conformity................................................255
The National Context: Behavioral Change...................................................................................256
The International Context: No Change.........................................................................................257
Conclusion........................................................................................................................................257
Chapter 10: Implications and Conclusion.........................................................................................259
Implications.......................................................................................................................................259
Introduction...................................................................................................................................259
Implications for Teachers and Schools: Establishing Collaborative Cultures..............................260
Implications for Principals and Policy Makers: Considering System Restructuring....................261
Implications for PD Providers: Shifting from Focus on Method to Focus on Teacher................264
For Researchers: Researching a Different Culture.......................................................................265
Research Contribution and Future Directions...................................................................................267
Epilogue The Egyptian Revolution: Signs of Change......................................................................269
References.........................................................................................................................................270
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List of Tables
Table 1 Characteristics of School Sites..............................................................................................81
Table 2 Summary of Principals’ Information.....................................................................................89
Table 3 Summary of Teacher Interviewee Information......................................................................99
Table 4 Summary of PD Providers’ Information..............................................................................104
Table 5 Summary of PD Providers Interviews Data.........................................................................107
Table 6 Summary of School Data Units...........................................................................................111
Table 7 Summary of Interview Data.................................................................................................113
Table 8 Perceived Change Among All Teachers..............................................................................123
Table 9 Comparing Teacher Groups on Great Change Responses...................................................126
Table 10 Being More Confident About the Effectiveness of Your Teaching: Kruskal-Wallis Test,
(χ2(3,N =174)=11.99, p =0.007).................................................................................................130
Table 11 Being More Confident About the Effectiveness of Your Teaching: Mann-Whitney Test
Comparing Contexts.........................................................................................................................131
Table 12 Teacher Conceptions and Implementations of Change.....................................................133
Table 13 Teacher Conceptions of Their Change..............................................................................135
Table 14 Teacher Conceptions of Change in the National School System......................................138
Table 15 Monitoring and Adjusting Practice to Contextual Demands.............................................139
Table 16 Teacher Perceptions in the International School Context: Keeping the Status Quo.........144
Table 17 Teachers’ Perceptions of Source Influence.......................................................................152
Table 18 Sample Teacher Description of Source Functions.............................................................156
Table 19 Comparing Teacher Group Responses on Great Influence...............................................160
Table 20 Collaboration with Colleagues; Kruskal-Wallis Test: (χ2(3,N =170)=11.40, p =0.01) 163
Table 21 Collaboration with Colleagues: Mann-Whitney Test Comparing Contexts......................164
Table 22 Collaboration in the National School Context...................................................................168
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Table 23 Teacher Attitudes Towards Educational Change in the Public Context............................172
Table 24 Teachers’ Perspectives on External Change Sources........................................................176
Table 25 Teacher Coping Strategies.................................................................................................180
Table 26 Teacher Perceived Needs and Priorities............................................................................182
Table 27 Teacher Attitude Towards Change in the National Context..............................................184
Table 28 Teacher Rationale for Keeping the Status Quo.................................................................194
Table 29 Teacher-school Relationship in the Public Context...........................................................204
Table 30 Principals’ Perceptions on the Value and Need for Change in the Public Context...........206
Table 31 The School–teacher Relationship......................................................................................210
Table 32 Principals’ Views on Teachers’ Involvement in PD and Change Efforts..........................212
Table 33 Principals’ Perceptions on Teacher Strengths...................................................................215
Table 34 The Management of Teacher Professional Needs.............................................................217
Table 35 Features of School-teacher Relationship in the International Context..............................221
Table 36 The Value of Sustaining PD in the International School Context.....................................223
Table 37 Rationale for Focusing on Method Training......................................................................231
Table 38 Summary of Cross-context Analysis of Phase 1................................................................240
Table 39 Summary of Cross-context Analysis of Phase 2................................................................248
Table 40 Summary of Cross-context Analysis of Phase 3................................................................255
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